SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF BIOSECURITY: FOUR ESSAYS ON BIOINVASIONS AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED AGRICULTURE

SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF BIOSECURITY:
FOUR ESSAYS ON BIOINVASIONS
AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED AGRICULTURE
PhD Thesis
Rosa Binimelis i Adell
Supervision: Dr. Joan Martínez Alier
Dr. Roger Strand
Submission data: November 2008
Autonomous University of Barcelona
PhD Program in Environmental Sciences
SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF BIOSECURITY:
FOUR ESSAYS ON BIOINVASIONS
AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED AGRICULTURE
Abstract
The doctoral thesis “Socio-economics of biosecurity: Four essays on bioinvasions and
genetically modified agriculture” deals with two highly controversial processes –the
introduction of invasive species (IS) and genetically modified organisms (GMOs)-, under
the umbrella of the concept of biosecurity. Biosecurity refers to a strategic and integrated
approach that encompasses the policy and regulatory frameworks that analyse and
manage risks in food safety, animal life and health, and plant life and health, including
associated environmental risk. It covers the introduction of plant pests, animal pests and
diseases, and zoonoses, the introduction and release of genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) and their products, and the introduction and management of invasive alien species
and genotypes.
In spite of the aspiration to an integrated approach, socio-economics aspects of biosecurity
have been much less studied than the technical ones. This is due in part to the modern
model of science, that establishes a clear distinction between risk assessment, which is
meant to be purely scientific and independent of value-judgements and to provide a
supposedly objective basis for decisions based on “sound-science” (usually considering
only those health and environmental impacts); and risk management, which supplements
the former with social and political considerations. Moreover the societal concerns which
cannot be individualised and quantified, or which challenge the economic model, are
excluded. This economic model is rooted in a liberal approach based on the idea that,
essentially, the legislation should ensure the freedom and right of individuals (displayed in
the free market). This is done by means of dumping decisions to the individual sphere, and
by setting self interested free choice as the only way of safeguarding rights and liberties.
The consequences of this approach are analysed through four published (or accepted)
articles dealing with four case studies from an empirical point of view. The first article
analyses two invasive processes: zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) in the Ebro River
(Spain) and Hydrilla verticillata in Lake Izabal (Guatemala). The second one describes the
debate and implications of GM maize cultivation in Catalonia and Aragon (Spain) on the
European coexistence legislation between GM and non-GM crops. Complementing it, a
third article deepens the analysis of the same conflict, by using the DPSIR framework and
i
focusing on the stakeholders narratives. A fourth article, merges processes of invasive
species and GMOs by analysing the driving forces, consequences and responses to the
emergence of a glyphosate-resistant weed after the massive diffusion of GM glyphosateresistant soy in Argentina. The four cases are analysed from a qualitative perspective,
based on field work and participatory methods. An awareness of the allocation of power is
also common to the four case studies, which are analyzed through the perspective of
conflict that characterizes political ecology.
Key words
Argentina, biosafety, biosecurity, coexistence with GMOs, Dreisssena polymorpha,
genetically
modified
maize,
Guatemala,
Hydrilla
bioinvasions, Sorghum halepense, Spain
ii
verticillata,
socio-economics
of
Resum en català
La tesis doctoral “Socio-economics of biosecurity: Four essays on bioinvasions and
genetically modified agriculture” (Socio-economia de la bioseguretat: Quatre assaigs sobre
bioinvasions i l’agricultura modificada genèticament) analitza dos processos altament
controvertits –la introducció d’espècies invasores i d’organismes modificats genèticament
(OMG)-, sota el concepte paraigua de la bioseguretat. Bioseguretat far referència a un
enfocament estratègic i integrat que reuneix els marcs polítics i reguladors per analitzar i
gestionar riscos en les àrees de la seguretat alimentària i la vida i sanitat animal i vegetal,
incloent el risc ambiental associat. El concepte cobreix la introducció de plagues de
plantes, plagues i malalties d’animals i zoonosis, la introducció i alliberament d’organismes
modificats genèticament i els seus productes i la introducció i la gestió d’espècies i
genotips exòtics invasors.
A pesar de la voluntat de tenir un enfocament integrat, els aspectes socio-econòmics de la
bioseguretat han estat molt menys estudiats que aquells aspectes tècnics. En part això és
degut al model científic modern, que estableix una clara distinció entre l’avaluació del risc,
que és purament científica i independent dels judicis de valors, i que té per finalitat proveir
de bases objectives per a prendre les decisions basades en criteris “estrictament científics”
(normalment només considerant impactes de salut i ambientals); i la gestió de risc, que
complementa el procés anterior amb consideracions socials i polítiques. A més a més,
aquelles preocupacions socials que no poden ser individualitzades i quantificades, o que
qüestionen el model econòmic, són excloses. Aquesta aproximació, de fonaments liberals,
està basada en la idea de que, essencialment, la legislació ha d’assegurar la llibertat i el
dret dels individus (expressats a través de lliure mercat). Per fer-ho, les decisions són
traspassades a l’esfera individual, establint-ho com l’única manera de garantir aquests
drets.
Les conseqüències d’aquesta visió són examinades a través de quatre articles publicats (o
acceptats) que analitzen quatre casos d’estudi des d’un punt de vista empíric. El primer
article estudia dos processos d’invasions biològiques: el del musclo zebrat (Dreissena
polymorpha) al riu Ebre i el de l’Hydrilla verticillata al llac Izabal (Guatemala). El segon
descriu el debat i les implicacions del conreu de blat de moro modificat genèticament a
Catalunya i Aragó per la legislació europea sobre coexistència entre conreus MG i aquells
que no ho són. Complementant-lo, un tercer article aprofundeix en el mateix conflicte usant
el marc DPSIR per estructurar la informació i centrant-se en les narratives dels actors
implicats. Finalment, el quart article convergeix els dos processos (espècies invasores i
transgènics) en analitzar les causes, conseqüències i respostes a l’aparició d’una “mala
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herba” resistent al glifosat després de la difusió massiva del conreu de soja resistent al
glifosat a Argentina. Els quatre casos són estudiats des d’una perspectiva qualitativa,
basada en treball de camp i mètodes participatius. La perspectiva d’anàlisis del poder és
també comú als quatre casos, que són investigats des del marc de l’estudi de conflictes
que caracteritza l’ecologia política.
Paraules clau
Argentina, bioseguretat, blat de moro modificat genèticament, coexistència amb
organismes modificats genèticament (OMG), Dreissena polymorpha, Estat espanyol,
Guatemala, Hydrilla verticillata, socio-economia de les bioinvasions, Sorghum halepense
iv
Table of contents
i
Abstract
Keywords
ii
Resum en català
Paraules clau
iii
iii
Table of contents
v
Introduction
The socio-economic aspects of biosecurity
1
1
The socio-economic research on biosecurity
3
Risk assessment vs risk management of biosecurity
9
Objectives
11
Methodological approach
11
A note on authorship
12
Summary and main conclusions of the articles
14
Article 1: A social analysis of the bioinvasions of Dreissena polymorpha in
Spain and Hydrilla verticillata in Guatemala
14
Article 2: Coexistence of plants and coexistence of farmers: Is an individual
15
choice possible?
Article 3: Catalan agriculture and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) – An
16
application of DPSIR model
Article 4: ’Transgenic Treadmill’: Responses to the emergence and spread of
Glyphosate-Resistant Johnsongrass in Argentina
17
Final remarks
19
Update of the case studies
19
References
21
Article 1: A social analysis of the bioinvasions of Dreissena polymorpha in
Spain and Hydrilla verticillata in Guatemala
Introduction
31
33
Biological Invasions as a complex phenomenon
34
A comparative approach to invasion processes
35
Methodology
35
Description of the case studies
35
v
36
Results
36
Stakeholders and their positions
Multidimensional effects of Biological Invasions: characterization of
impacts
38
Definition of management options
38
Discussion
40
Conclusions
42
References
43
Article 2: Coexistence of plants and coexistence of farmers: Is an individual
choice possible?
Introduction
45
47
Methodology
49
The maize sector in Catalonia and Aragon
51
Legislative proposals for coexistence
52
How is coexistence conceived and implemented
53
The concept of coexistence
53
What is at stake? The notion of genetic contamination
54
Technical measures for coexistence
55
The social dimensions of liability
57
Discussion
61
References
62
Article 3: Catalan agriculture and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) –
An application of DPSIR model
Introduction
GM and organic agriculture as indicators – A literature review
69
71
73
The Catalan maize sector
75
Methodology of the case study
76
The DPSIR framework applied to the agroenvironmental state of the Catalan
agriculture – special emphasis on GMOs
77
Stakeholders
77
Catalonia’s agriculture crisis under the light of DPSIR
79
Discussion
86
Conclusion
87
References
88
vi
Article 4: ’Transgenic Treadmill’: Responses to the emergence and spread of
Glyphosate-Resistant Johnsongrass in Argentina
Introduction
93
95
99
Methods
100
The Argentinean GR soybean system
Production system and technological applications
100
The institutional setting
101
The new social organization of space
102
Future scenarios of the production system
103
“With the GR soybean we got to paradise… but it lasted so little…”: The
emergence, impacts and responses to GR johnsongrass
104
Environmental history of johnsongrass in Argentina
104
The emergence of GR johnsongrass biotypes in Argentina
107
Potential impacts associated with GR johnsongrass
108
Management of responses to GR johnsongrass
109
Discussion and concluding remarks
114
References
117
Acknowledgements
127
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Introduction
The doctoral thesis “Socio-economics of Biosecurity: Four essays on bioinvasions and
genetically modified agriculture” includes four articles and an introductory chapter. This
introduction contains a brief discussion on the main issues developed in the thesis, a
review of the methodology, a summary of the main findings for each article and conclusions
and some final remarks. It applies the unifying concept of biosecurity to the different case
studies.
This thesis deals with two highly controversial processes –the introduction of invasive
species (IS) and genetically modified organisms (GMOs)-, which challenge public policy
under the umbrella of the concepts of biosecurity and biosafety. Both processes, although
having some substantial differences (i.e. the introduction of GMOs are willed processes
while bioinvasions are events rather than acts) present also commonalities. In fact, GMOs
have been discussed for the last 20 years in light of bioinvasions (Ewel et al., 1999;
Hancock, 2003; Parker and Kareiva, 1996; Williamson, 1993; 1994). Both question
conventional views on science and environmental ethics and how nature is understood
while confronting different rationales, competing goals and development models.
The socio-economic aspects of biosecurity
The concept of biosecurity has gained importance at the international policy arena during
the last years, to become a main crossover between biodiversity, agriculture and
environmental conservation. The term was firstly used in the United States to describe an
approach aiming to prevent or decrease the transmission of infectious diseases in crops
and livestock, and also for referring to the defence against biological weapons (e.g. the
deliberate introduction of smallpox or anthrax in human populations). However, more
recently the term has been applied more broadly to cover efforts to prevent harm from both
intentional and unintentional introductions of organisms to human health, infrastructure and
the environment, as well as to the agricultural crop and livestock industries (McNeely al.
2001, Meyerson and Reaser 2002; Waage and Mumford, 2008). It was first introduced into
legislation in 1993 in Australia, when the Biosecurity Act was approved (Jay and Morad,
2006). Although its meaning shifts with the implementation or geographical context
(Sunshine Project, 2003; Waage and Mumford, 2008), a frequently used definition is the
one established by FAO (2003):
1
“Biosecurity refers to a strategic and integrated approach that encompasses the
policy and regulatory frameworks (including instruments and activities) that analyse
and manage risks in the sectors of food safety, animal life and health, and plant life
and health, including associated environmental risk. Biosecurity covers the
introduction of plant pests, animal pests and diseases, and zoonoses1, the
introduction and release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their
products, and the introduction and management of invasive alien species and
genotypes. Biosecurity is a holistic concept of direct relevance to the sustainability
of agriculture, food safety, and the protection of the environment, including
biodiversity”.
By contrast, the term biosafety2 has a more limited scope. It refers to the introduction,
release and use of genetically modified organisms. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
applies it to “the transboundary movements, transit, handling and use of all living modified
organisms that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health” (CPB, 2000).
Biosecurity and biosafety cannot be separated from the social context where both invasive
species and GMOs are introduced and established (Kleinman and Kinchy, 2007;
Kropiwnicka, 2003; Jay and Morad, 2006). At the same time, as it will be discussed in this
dissertation, the management of invasive species and GMOs is characterised by uncertain
outcomes, multiple and conflicting objectives among the many interested parties with
different views on both facts and values.
Invasion processes are considered a human-induced phenomenon. In that sense, socioeconomic arrangements can foster or restrict the introduction of invasive species
(Dalmazzone, 2000; Kowarik, 2003) or create the conditions for alien species to flourish or
fail (Jay and Morad, 2006). This human involvement comprises not only the configuration of
driving forces, the different ways in which invasive species impacts are perceived by the
different social groups (Binimelis et al., 2007; Levine et al., 2003; Stokes et al., 2006), and
the implementation of responses (McNeely et al., 2001; Norgaard, 2007), but also the very
conception of the invasive process as an environmental and socioeconomic problem (Jay
and Morad, 2006; Larson, 2007a; 2007b; Lodge and Schrader-Frechette, 2003; ShraderFrechette, 2001). Take for instance the issue of eradicating hedgehops in the Outer
1
Zoonose is any infectious disease that is able to be transmitted (by a vector) from other animals, both
wild and domestic, to humans or from humans to animals.
2
Both biosafety and biosecurity terms are translated at Spanish and Catalan as bioseguridad and
bioseguretat respectively.
2
Hebridean Island, Scotland, as described by Coates (2003). An islander introduced some
individuals in order to clear his garden of slugs and snails in the mid 1970s. Rapidly,
hedgehops proliferated at expenses of the island’s avifauna. In 2003, when the British
Government’s conservation body for Scotland discussed the eradication of hedgehogs, the
British Hedgehog Preservation Society was up in arms. It initiated a campaign in order to
avoid the culling3; and even several children wrote wanting to adopt a hedgehog. Finally,
after four years of intense debate it was decided to translocate the animals to the mainland.
Other examples are described in Hall (2003) or Jay and Morad (2006).
Similarly, genetic engineering, as any other technology, cannot be separated from the
industrial and research complex in which it has been developed (Kloppenburg, 1988;
Lyson, 2002; McAfee, 2003), the social context in which it is adopted and disseminated
(Daño, 2007; McAfee, 2008) and the institutional setting of application (McAfee, 2003). In
this sense, McAfee (2008) explains how the controversy about genetic “contamination” of
indigenous maize varieties in Mexico by GM maize from the United States has been
intensified by rising Mexican discontent with the terms of the bilateral trade agreement
between the two countries. The assessment of its consequences is also subject to social
discussion as the different spheres of society –economic, political, social, cultural or ethicalfoster and are all affected by the these processes, through with differing intensity and
unequal distribution.
Following this, Daño (2007) summarizes the need for assessing the potential socioeconomic impacts of GMOs in four general aspects, which will, at least in part, overlap with
the consequences of the deliberate introduction of invasive species: a) social responsibility
of the scientist who develop and the decision-makers who introduce a technology into a
society in order to bear for the potential consequences once the technology is released into
the environment; b) inter-generational-responsibility in order to ensure that adverse effects
are avoided (due to the long-term characteristics of the environmental and socio-economic
impacts); c) social acceptance, which means that stakeholders and society in general are
involved in the decision-making; and d) the need for measures for reducing long-term cost,
specially when dealing with potential irreversible damages.
The socio-economic research on biosecurity
3
See Uist Hedgehog Rescue (UHR) webpage: http://www.uhr.org.uk/
3
In this thesis the introduction of invasive species and GMOs are seen as issues in the
governance of biosecurity. However, the socio-economic analysis of these processes has
received so far less attention in the literature than the biological and technological aspects.
Biological invasions have been present in human history for many years (Crosby, 1986)
and they have been object of ecological research for a few decades, focusing either on the
invasiveness of the species or the invasibility of the ecosystems (Kolar and Lodge, 2001;
Pyŝek et al., 2004; Shine et al., 2000; Williamson, 1996). Research has also focused on the
effects of invasive species on ecosystems and their functioning, and on the damages to the
services the ecosystems provide (Binimelis et al., 2007; Levine et al., 2003). By contrast,
the study of the socio-economic aspects of biological invasions is more recent (Jay and
Morad, 2006; Larson, 2007b; Robbins, 2004). The centre of attention has been the
economic costs caused by invasive species or their management (Barbier, 2001; Horan et
al., 2002; Perrings et al., 2002; 2005; Pimentel et al., 2000; 2001; 2005).
Despite the popularity of such monetary evaluations, these aggregate quantitative
economic analyses are designed to estimate (actual or fictitious4) market impacts, rather
than those outside the economic sphere. For these reasons, these studies have been
accused of not constituting a solid platform for the development of a biosecurity policy
(Waage et al., 2005). Only a minority of studies use more holistic approaches, which could
complement the limited available economic data of biological invasions impacts, allow the
use of qualitative data (e.g. esthetical or ethical values) and make uncertainty explicit.
Following this reasoning, deliberative approaches are recommended (Born et al., 2005),
although their practical implementation has been limited (Cook and Proctor, 2007; Evans et
al., 2008; Monterroso, 2005; Rodríguez-Labajos, 2006).
Another area of socio-economic examination has been the analysis of the driving forces
and pathways fostering the invasive species introduction. Most of these analyses are done
by means of statistical correlates (see e.g. Hulme et al., 2008; Vilà and Pujadas, 2001),
usually lacking a sound explanatory power. In that sense, Vilà and Pujadas (2001) find a
significant contribution of the Human Development Index for explaining the variation in
density of alien plants. However, it is not clear how this index, composed by measures of
life expectancy, literacy, educational level and the gross domestic product per capita
contributes to the introduction and spread of these species. A minority go further by shifting
the focal point from the species to the socio-economic system that fosters the invasion
process, as “it is not species but socio-biological networks that are invasive” (Robbins,
2004; see also Bright, 1999). The same reasoning can be found from a historical approach,
4
By fictitious market impact I refer to valuations in terms of willingness to pay and the like.
4
as the pioneering work by Crosby (1986) and Melville (1994) shows (see also Jay and
Morad, 2006).
In a similar way, GMOs introduction has been vastly discussed in the scientific literature,
mainly from a technical perspective. Leaving aside the literature in the field of molecular
biology, research on biosecurity –or biosafety- of GMOs has mostly addressed
environmental (Barratt et al., 2006; Snow et al., 2004; Tiedje et al., 1989; Wolfenbarger and
Phifer, 2000) and health aspects (British Medical Association, 2004; Pryme and Lembcke,
2003)5, often leaving aside the integration of socio-economic and ethical considerations
(Daño, 2007). In that sense, decisions on biosafety issues are characterised by giving a
central role to biotechnology expertise, in contrast to other areas such as ecology or
sociology (Funtowicz and Strand, 2007). As it will be seen, this low incorporation of socioeconomic research is reflected in failures in actual decision-making processes (Fransen et
al., 2005).
Socio-economic enquiry on GMOs has focused on the economic aspects and the social
distribution of costs and benefits derived from the introduction of biotechnology. Some of
the literature is rooted in a positive view of the benefits of industrial farming, assuming a
scale neutrality of the technology and the necessity to engage with global markets (e.g.
European Commission, 2002; Herring, 2008). By contrast, other authors present a much
more critical perspective on the benefits of such model, arguing that it will contribute to
inequity favouring certain groups among others (Buttel et al., 1985; Duffy, 2001;
Kloppenburg, 1988). Linked to this second view, authors have warned on the
consequences of the private ownership and marked-based management of biotechnology
through patents and the trade-related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) agreement
(McAfee, 2003), in line with the main arguments of international mobilisation against GMOs
(Scoones, 2008; see e.g. Via Campesina, GRAIN, ETCGroup, Third World Network).
Research has also been conducted on the compatibility of GM crops with other type of
agriculture, at a technical (Altieri, 2005; Müller, 2003; Ponti, 2005) or at the conceptual
level, arguing for a clash of rationales in relation to the agriculture model, the global trade
rules or corporate control and property rights (Levidow and Boschert, 2007; Lyson, 2002;
Verhoog, 2007; see also the second article of this thesis). Related to these concerns, a
branch of literature coming from the science and technology studies has focused on the
5
In spite of it, an article in Science announced: “Health Risks of GM Foods: Many Opinions but Few Data”
(Domingo, 2000). The same view was expressed by the British Medical Association (2004) and Traavik
and Heinemann (2007) reporting a lack of answers to some of the most pervasive questions related to the
issue. Health issues are not dealt with in this thesis.
5
failure of the science-based assessment procedures to incorporate societal concerns (Carr
and Levidow, 2000; Sarewitz, 2004), and the lack of social legitimacy of the regulations
(Levidow and Marris, 2001). It is linked with the lack of integration of ethical issues in the
management of biosecurity. At this respect, several authors have warned that these
aspects are discussed at a technical level by professional bioethicists but non as an
integrated cross-cutting topic, hindering a more sensible and socially robust evaluation
(Devos et al., 2008; Carr and Levidow, 2000; Funtowicz and Strand, 2007; Wynne, 2001).
Finally, an important area of socio-economic research has been the study of public
perceptions on the biotechnology, as in the Eurobarometer surveys (Gaskell et al., 2003) or
among different stakeholders’ groups (Kondoh and Jussame, 2006; Marris et al., 2001; Wu,
2004).
In a similar way, the relation between GMOs and invasive species has also been discussed
in the scientific literature from a technical point of view. On the one hand, different authors
have argued that GMOs be included under the category of non-native species (Ewel et al.,
1999), while others have focused on whether GMOs are likely to be more competitive than
native species, enhancing their invasibility potential (Parker and Kareiva, 1996). On the
other hand, some studies have claimed that self-dispersing GMOs could be advantageous
when released purposely to the environment in order to address problems in public health,
invasive species or pest control (for a review, see Angulo and Gilna (2008)). In that sense,
for instance, Spanish researchers have developed and tried a transmissible vaccinating
GM myxoma virus to protect threatened native Spanish rabbits while the same virus was
used traditionally and in GMO research as a biocontrol against rabbits in Australia (Angulo
and Gilna, 2008). Finally, other studies warned on the pressure selection resulting from the
increased consumption of glyphosate in herbicide-resistant GM crops, leading to the
emergence of herbicide-resistant weeds (Altieri, 2005; Barton and Dracup, 2000; Ervin et
al., 2003; Martinez-Ghersa et al., 2003; McAfee, 2003; Powles, 2003; Snow et al., 2004;
Steinbrecher, 2001).
Scientific neutrality and objectivity are central to the lack of socio-economic engagement in
the scientific literature on bioinvasions and GMOs. In the case of invasive species, there
has been an intense debate in the literature concerning the very definition of the concept6.
On the one hand, from a biogeographical perspective, a distinction between native and
alien species has been established, based on spatial and temporal distribution patterns
(Pyšek et al., 2004; Richardson et al., 2000; Williamson, 1996). From this viewpoint,
6
Early versions of the following classification have been used by the UAB-ALARM team (Rodriguez-
Labajos, Monterroso and Binimelis), e.g. in Monterroso et al. (2005) and Walter and Binimelis
(unpublished).
6
impacts should be excluded from the definition of invasive species as “defining invaders as
those species with the largest impacts is an exercise in subjectivity that will be unlikely to
contribute to clarity” (Pyšek et al., 2004; see also Daehler (2001)). On the other hand, from
an impact-based perspective, the definition is led by policy-making objectives that
emphasize mitigation of negative impacts on biological diversity and/or human welfare
(Davis and Thompson, 2000; 2001; IUCN, 2000; McNeely et al., 2001; Shine et al., 2000).
This approach was used by the Convention of Biological Diversity for defining invasive
species as: ‘‘alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species with economic or
environmental harm” (CBD, 2002). Finally, a third perspective considers the concept of
alien invasive species as a social construction inspired by nativism, a discriminative
ideology based on personal or cultural values (Theodoropoulos, 2003).
The differences in approach will determine which biosecurity actions are to be taken and
which are the targeted species, if any. On the one hand, the first definition is claimed to be
value-free, as an invader can be easily measured by analyzing population growth and
distance of spread from origin (Daehler, 2001). However, it is still context dependent
because the notion of alien implies the delimitation of temporal and spatial boundaries
(Davis and Thompson, 2000). Moreover, some degree of arbitrariness is inherent in the
idea of “overabundant” introduced species (Shrader-Frechette, 2001). The biogeographical
perspective also entails the notion that all introduced species are, per se, less desirable
than natives (Simberloff, 2003). A historical approach to biological invasions reveals
changes in subjective perceptions (Alderman, 2004; Arcioni, 2004; Beinart and Middleton,
2004; Beinart , 2008; Crosby, 1986; Pimentel et al., 2001) and while some species can be
firstly judged as beneficial and prejudicial afterwards, others can result in conflicting
outcomes (Binimelis et al., 2007; de Wit et al., 2001; Quist and Hubert, 2004; Shafroth et
al., 2006;).
Furthermore, the first and the second perspectives entail a science model based on the
separation between facts and values in which scientists provide pure information and
others make decisions based on it (Funtowicz and Strand, 2007; Larson, 2007a). However,
facts do not stand for themselves, but are negotiated through particular frames of reference
(Cassey et al., 2005). Moreover, perception of costs and benefits of biological invasions,
and responses to them, usually differ among groups of stakeholders (Norgaard, 2007;
Stokes et al., 2006). It is through a negotiation process among organizations, experts,
policy makers and the civil society that biological invasions embrace different meanings
and are treated through particular frameworks, resulting in a specific local approach to the
issue. As Lodge and Schrader-Frechette (2003) point out: “any characterisation that any of
all non-indigenous species are good or bad is a value judgment, not science (…) The
7
unavoidability of such valued judgement also reveals why development of policy for
invasive species should depend much more than in scientific expertise” (see also Larson,
2007a). As the first article (“A social analysis of bioinvasions of D.polymorpha in Spain and
H.verticillata in Guatemala”) and the fourth article (“’Transgenic Treadmill’: Responses to
the emergence and spread of the Glyphosate-Resistant Johnsongrass in Argentina”) of this
thesis show, the very definition of invasive species must be considered relative and
strongly influenced by culture and politics (Robbins, 2004).
In a parallel way, the separation of facts and values is also advocated in the discussion on
the normative framework for GMOs introduction. Take for instance the negotiation of the
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB). It was negotiated under the Convention on
Biological Diversity to regulate the cross-border movement of the products of modern
biotechnology7. Article 26 of the CPB allows countries to take intro account socio-economic
considerations, in a consistent manner with existing international obligations by which
countries must be bond8. As stated by Mackenzie et al. (2003), the question of including
socio-economic considerations in the text was one of the major controversial issues
between mostly developing and developed countries during the CPB negotiations. While
most developing countries pushed for the including socio-economic considerations as one
of the bases for conducting the risk assessment and managing and making decisions on
GMO imports, most developed countries argued that socio-economic aspects are issues of
national domestic concern, subjective and difficult to quantify for making decisions and that
therefore, such considerations should be excluded of the CPB (see Kleinman and Kinchy
(2007) and Stabinsky (2000) for a discussion on the inclusion of socio-economic aspects in
the CPB). Finally, this section was only accepted provided that its application was
consistent with existing international obligations, especially trade rules. In spite of it, there is
no agreement on which type of considerations should be taken; neither how should it be
7
Modern biotechnology is described in the Cartagena Protocol of Biosafety as the application of "in vitro
nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) and direct injection of nucleic
acid into cells or organelles; or fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural
physiological reproductive or recombination barriers and that are not techniques used in traditional
breeding and selection" (CBD, 2000). The most commonly used techniques are the utilisation of the
bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which is naturally able to transfer DNA to plants, and the ‘gene
gun’, which shoots microscopic particles coated with DNA into the plant cell. Modern biotechnology can
therefore introduce a greater diversity of genes into organisms than traditional methods of breeding and
selection.
8
Besides, countries may also incorporate other socio-economic impacts than those explicitly include in
article 26 in their domestic legislation on biosafety (Mackenkie et al., 2003).
8
done and under which liability regime9. For this reason, Veit Köster (2001), who was chair
of the Biosafety Working Group, complained that “socio-economic considerations are
broadly speaking not legitimate under the World Trade Organisation rules, the aim of which
is more or less to get rid of such considerations”. Examples of such socio-economic
considerations are the analysis of income security and distribution derived from the
introduction of GMOs, the effect on rural labour or on gender issues (Third World Network,
2008; see also Fransen et al., 2005).
The same reasoning operates regarding the coexistence regulation. As the second article
of this thesis shows (“Coexistence of plants, coexistence of farmers. Is an individual choice
possible?”), the technical coexistence framework in Europe between transgenic and
“organic” agriculture is constrained within the quantifiable economic aspects derived from
the admixture of GM and non-GM crops. Other socio-economic extra-market goods or
“bads” (e.g. loss of trust among consumers, admixture of GMOs with local varieties,
increase of farmer’s dependency on external inputs), are excluded as they cannot be
objectively quantified or are incommensurable.
Risk assessment vs risk management of biosecurity
These normative premises are based on what Funtowicz and Strand (2007) call the
modern model. It is based in the simple assumption that the relation between science and
policy flows one-way: science informs policy by producing objective, valid and reliable
knowledge. Truth speaks to power. As a result, developing a policy is a matter of becoming
informed by science and, in a second step, of allocating the diverse values and interests.
Science becomes then a primary source of legitimacy for policy decision. In this way, risk
policy is divided in two stages: the risk assessment, which is meant to be purely scientific
and independent of value-judgements, provides a supposedly objective basis for decisions;
and the risk management, which supplements the former by social and political
considerations.
However, as this thesis shows the conflicts around GMOs and IS (invasive species) are not
just a clash between “sound science” and “unsound” knowledge claims. In practice,
different experts and stakeholders provide competing representations of risks due to
methodological uncertainty (e.g. see discussion on isolation distances for GM maize),
different disciplinary approaches (Kvakkestad et al., 2007) or value-based political or
9
This was one of the main issues at the 4th Conference of the Parties (COP) held in Bonn in May 2008.
However, the only agreement was to gather more information in order to take up again the negotiations in
th
the 6 COP in year 2012.
9
ethical positions (Sarewitz, 2004). At the same time, stakeholders contribute with different
sort of valuable knowledge and weigh differently ecological, economic, ethical or aesthetic
values, all of them representing legitimate views and interests but usually overlooked, as
these concerns fall outside the “risk window”, which only makes visible that which has been
predefined as a relevant risk (Jensen et al., 2003). Furthermore, both processes of GMOs
introduction and the dissemination of IS have the potential for unexpected and surprising
effects in which “we do not know what we do not know”. We are then facing complex
problems, characterised by confrontation at the societal level, but also by low consensus on
the scientific issues and the analytical methods to be applied, in which decision stakes are
high and multiple narratives exist depending on complex and value-laden considerations,
shaped by interests in different cultural, ethical and socio-economic contexts. “Sound
science” is then necessary, but not a sufficient condition for the robust assessment of
biosecurity.
The present risk policy establishes that a GMO should be approved, or an IS allowed to be
introduced, if the risk of adverse effects on human health and the environment is
acceptably small (which is in itself a value-judgement). The exclusion of other type of
societal concerns is rooted in the neoliberal approach (Kleinman and Kinchy, 2007),
focusing on the idea that, essentially, the legislation should ensure the freedom and right of
individuals (Jensen et al., 2003), displayed in the free market. This is done by means of
dumping decisions to the individual sphere (Cocklin et al., 2008; Devos, 2008), and by
setting self interested free choice as the only way of safeguarding rights and liberties (Roff,
2008). Given the appropriate legal norms, damage caused by a technology will be
compensated for through liability cases – this is the economic approach. In fact, as shown
in this thesis, the compensation of (often uncertain) damage through the enforcement of
liability is not at all straightforward.
As a consequence of the dominance of the economic approach, the frame excludes other
rationales and criteria, such as food quality, farmer independency or trust in public
regulatory institutions, which cannot be easily individualised and quantified, challenging the
economic model in which these processes are embedded in favour of the discussion of
technical solutions. At the same time, the same logic of individualisation applies to the
responses to these processes, which favours reactive measures that favour those with the
resources to adapt while transfers the risk to society and the environment (Perrings, 2005).
At first sight, the articles in this thesis deal with disparate topics; bioinvasions and GM
agriculture may be thought to be quite different subject matters. The case study on
Argentina provides a clear link between one bioinvasion and GM agriculture because the
10
use of glyphosate in genetic modified soybean cultivation has produced resistance in an
invasive species, Sorghum halepense. The details and the uncertainties of this case are
analyzed in article 4. More importantly, however, at a deeper level the problems of
governance of biosecurity (and biosafety) bring the research in this thesis together.
Another common thread is the methodology used in my research, based on field work and
participatory methods. An awareness of the allocation of power is also common to the
different case studies, which are analyzed through the perspective of conflict that
characterizes political ecology. Although bioinvasions might be considered at first sight as a
threat to which all sectors of society should be opposed, we show that this is not the case
or rather that society divides on the urgency of the threat and the policies to be adopted.
How to compare between differently distributed social and geographical impacts? How to
balance environmental vs economic impacts or the present vs the future generations? How
is liability defined? Still more importantly, who has the power to frame the issues and
determine policy, and who is entitled to define the levels of risk and uncertainty (or
ignorance) socially tolerated?
Objectives
The main objectives of this thesis are:
-
To study the intertwined scientific, political, economic and social contexts in the
governance of biosecurity;
-
To explore the common and differing aspects of bioinvasions and GM agriculture;
-
To discuss the social relevance of uncertainty beyond the customary approach of
quantifiable risks;
-
To investigate through case studies the different valuation of costs of benefits of
threats to biosecurity, depending on social structures and power distribution.
Methodological approach
This thesis aims to study the socio-economics of biosecurity starting from an empirical
approach. For this purpose, four case studies have been analysed: the invasion processes
of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) in the Ebro River (Spain) and Hydrilla
verticillata in Lake Izabal (Guatemala), the emergence of a glyphosate-resistant biotype of
johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) in Argentina, and the introduction and dissemination of
GM maize in Catalonia and Aragon (Spain).
The empirical cases are characterised by complexity inherent to the invasion or introduction
processes, lack of complete data (which does not always allow analysing their impacts from
11
a quantitative perspective) and the existence of conflicting perspectives regarding their
significance, which requires an interdisciplinary perspective to explore them. Research has
focused on the analysis of how different stakeholders frame the studied problems. In order
to draw out these different frames, a discourse analysis approach has been used. This
approach has been widely used for analyzing environmental conflicts in general (Hajer,
1995) but also for controversies over biotechnology (Heller, 2002, 2006; Kleinman and
Kinchy, 2007; Levidow and Boschert, 2007; Levidow and Carr, 2007) and invasive species
(Larson et al., 2005; Norgaard, 2007). Discourse is here defined as a way to understand a
shared system of knowledge or belief and the social practices in which it is produced
through which meaning is given to the world (Hajer, 1995, p. 44).
The stakeholders’ practices and experiences are highlighted, not only focusing on their
world as “thought” but also “lived”. For doing so, qualitative field research methods were
used, aiming to elicit actors’ perceptions and understanding of the processes, as well as
their practices (Kvale, 1996). These techniques included semi-structured group and
individual in-depth interviews and also participant observation. Semi-structured interviews
start from an interview guide that includes main thematic points, but it is open in order to be
flexible for including topics not initially foreseen by the interviewer. The informants were
selected among principals experts and actors who participate in the debate (at a
conceptual or practical level, e.g. farmers), based on their different roles on the issue, so as
to explore their various perceptions.
Most interviews were audio or video recorded and literally transcribed. The rest was
registered with field notes, as the informants did not wish to be audio recorded. The great
majority of participants were interviewed in their workplace of house, aiming to
contextualise the research activities while providing a comfortable environment for those
participating in the interviews. In order to analyse the transcripts, interviews and field notes
were coded. In one of the cases the collected information was analyzed using ATLAS.ti, a
qualitative data analysis software which allows to analyse large data sets through setting
categories, systematise and refine concepts (Kelle, 2000; Lewins and Silver, 2007).
The interviews for the Hydrilla verticillata case in Guatemala were performed by Iliana
Monterroso, while for the other cases, they were performed by myself with the collaboration
of the respective co-authors. The analysis of the interviews was conducted co-operatively
in the first paper; while it was done by me in the rest of the papers constituting this thesis.
12
A detailed description of the methodology used in each case study (e.g. the structure of
semi-structured interviews for each case study, or the specific targeted stakeholders) is
given in the methodological section of each paper.
A note on authorship
The thesis is constituted by an introduction and four articles published in peer-review
scientific journals, all of them dealing with different aspects of the socio-economics of
biosecurity. It is a product of the European project ALARM. The author has worked in close
collaboration with Iliana Monterroso and Beatriz Rodriguez Labajos over four years, as well
as with other members of the socio-economic team in ALARM. We have worked together
on some case studies, but also separately on other cases. Some articles or book chapters
that we have published together with them or other co-authors, or that are accepted for
publication, are not included in this thesis. These include:
-
Monterroso, I., Binimelis, R., Rodríguez-Labajos (in press). New methods for the
analysis of invasion processes: Multi-criteria evaluation of the invasion of Hydrilla
verticillata in Lake Izabal, Guatemala. Journal of Environmental Management.
-
Rodríguez-Labajos, B., Binimelis, R., Monterroso, I., (in press). Multi-level driving
forces of biological invasions. Ecological Economics.
-
Rodríguez-Labajos, B., Binimelis, R., Cardona, C., Dittmer, K., Martínez-Alier, J.,
Monterroso, I., Munnè, A., (in press). Chronicle of a bioinvasion foretold: distribution
and management of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) invasion in Spain. In
Settele, J., (ed.). ATLAS of Biodiversity, Pensoft.
-
Binimelis, R., Strand, R. (2008). Spain and the European Debate on GM Moratoria
vs Coexistence. In Funtowicz, S., Guimeraes Pereira, A.. (eds), Science for Policy:
New Challenges, New Opportunities. Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp 110-122.
-
Rodríguez-Labajos, B., Binimelis, R., Martínez-Alier, J., Munnè, A., 2008. Reciente
pero rápida invasión del mejillón cebra en los ríos españoles. In Vilà, M.,
Valladares, F., Traveset, A., Santamaría, L., Castro, P. (eds.), Invasiones
Biológicas, serie Ciencia y Divulgación, CSIC.
-
Binimelis, R., Born, W., Monterroso, I., Rodríguez-Labajos, B., 2007. Socioeconomic impact and assessment of biological invasions. In Nentwig, W., (ed),
Biological Invasions. Ecological Studies, 193. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg,
pp. 331-347.
Moreover, we have presented our work in several international and national conferences
and workshops.
13
The first article of this thesis, dealing with the analysis of two invasive processes in Spain
and Guatemala has been published in Environmental Management (2007) co-auhored with
Iliana Monterroso and Beatriz Rodríguez Labajos. The second article, published in the
Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics (2008) describes the debate and
implications on the European coexistence legislation between GM and non-GM crops.
Complementing it, a third article deepens the analysis of the same conflict by using the
DPSIR framework and focusing on the stakeholders narratives. It has been accepted for
publication in Ecological Economics (2008). It is co-authored with Iliana Monterroso and
Beatriz Rodríguez Labajos. A fourth article, accepted for publication in Geoforum (2008),
merges processes of invasive species and GMOs by analysing the driving forces,
consequences and responses of the emergence of a glyphosate-resistant weed after the
massive diffusion of GM glyphosate-resistant soy in Argentina. This article is co-authored
with Walter Pengue and Iliana Monterroso.
Summary and main conclusions of the articles
Article 1: A social analysis of the bioinvasions of Dreissena polymorpha in Spain
and Hydrilla verticillata in Guatemala
Biological invasions are conceptualised under different definitions in the literature. This
paper examines different stakeholders’ positions in bioinvasion processes by comparing
two cases occurred in aquatic ecosystems: the invasion process of Dreissena polymorpha
in the Ebro River (Spain) and the case of Hydrilla verticillata in Lake Izabal (Guatemala).
This analysis allows discussing the implications of the different conceptions of the
phenomenon at the management level.
This is done by first introducing the issue of biological invasions, analysing the different
definitions and conceptions used in the literature for referring to them. Then, the two cases
are characterised, describing both the analysed species and the socio-economic and
environmental characteristics of the host ecosystem, which explain establishment and
could favour further spread. An analysis of the main stakeholders concerned with the
biosecurity management around the species is presented, by describing their involvement
as drivers, as affected actors (showing e.g. how they value the multidimensional impacts)
and promoters or detractors of the proposed management strategies.
14
The discussion focuses on the relevance of incorporating the different stakeholders’
interests and values in the analysis and management of biological invasions. In that sense,
the configuration of the phenomenon of invasive species as an environmental issue
depends on the stakeholders’ views on drivers, impacts and responses. Thus, so as to
effectively address invasion processes, it is important to take into account stakeholders’
interests and values. This entails bringing into the decision-making process the
perspectives of stakeholders by consultation and exchange of information. In this sense,
participatory methodologies are a tool for improving the knowledge of the problem.
Participation also influences the legitimacy of decisions around the management options.
However, in both cases (in Spain and Guatemala) the initial approach by the authorities
was a technical one, reducing the boundaries of the management scenario to a decision
regarding the most effective control option in monetary terms. Consensus of future
management scenarios for ecosystems is not pursued; instead, technical measures to
manage invasion species would be implemented, with a low level of agreement between
the different stakeholders, unable to fit their own economic and social interests and values
to the sustainability of aquatic ecosystems under this approach.
In that sense, although social analysis of stakeholders’ positions is necessary in order to
foster management actions, it also reveals conflicts on the relevant criteria, the boundaries
of the system and on the very definition of invasive species.
Article 2: Coexistence of plants and coexistence of farmers: Is an individual
choice possible?
The debate on coexistence between GM crops and conventional and “organic” agriculture
was first introduced in 2002 by the European Commission aiming to deal with the emerging
concerns derived from the admixture between GM, conventional, and organic crops. This
issue was very relevant for organic producers, who are committed to a worldwide
consensus not to use GMOs. At the same time, the coexistence framework intended to lift
the existing ‘‘de-facto’’ moratorium within the European Union on GM commercial
agriculture leaving the market to operate freely. This policy framework was seen a
compromise solution, intending to reduce the conflicts on GMOs by the establishment of
science-based technical measures to ensure coexistence (such as the 0.9% admixture
level allowed).
15
Previous studies were conducted ex-ante based on modelling and experimental cases, due
to the lack of commercial fields in most European countries. The objective of this paper is
to revise the concept of coexistence as a policy frame that avoids conflicts by allowing the
free market to operate by analysing the situation in Catalonia and Aragon, where 23,000
and 35,900 ha of GM maize were sown in 2007 respectively. This research involved
qualitative techniques by means of group and individual in-depth interviews and participant
observation.
The analysis revealed a social confrontation between proponents and opponents of GM
technology. In that sense, without an agreement of the objectives to be achieved, the
technocratic coexistence policy framework leads to a legitimacy crisis. There are thus
confronting ideas on the feasibility to establish isolation distances or segregate the product
and regulate liability in case of admixture, responding to contrasting world-views.
The study analyses also the difficulties that “organic” farmers face in practice in order to
claim compensation if “contamination” takes place, due to technical uncertainties (e.g. for
measuring the level of “contamination” or its origin) and because of social constraints.
Individually affected “organic” farmers suing for compensation would be obliged to identify
the farmer responsible for the contamination, leading to local confrontation in small villages.
Moreover, beyond economic compensation, there are issues of the general model to be
adopted by agriculture in a society aware of environmental concerns. As a result, the area
devoted to organic maize has been reduced significantly since the first analysis for the
detection of GM traces were conducted. Framing the problem as a technical issue has
resulted not in coexistence but in the promotion of GM agriculture over organic agriculture.
Article 3: Catalan agriculture and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) – An
application of DPSIR model
This paper starts from the same case study analysed in the previous paper to focus on the
stakeholders’ positions on how GMOs governance influences the state of the environment
in Catalonia. For doing so, the potential of the DPSIR (Driving forces – Pressures – State –
Impact – Responses) methodology as a communication tool that structures information
about the interactions between society and the environment is analysed. The paper first
examines the advantages and shortcomings of the DPSIR model, as well as how it has
been used in the context of GMOs and organic agriculture. Then, the next section
characterises the Catalan maize sector and the current state of the GMOs crops and
organic farming. Stakeholders’ positions were analysed through secondary sources and
16
field research, which included qualitative techniques such as workshops, group and
individual in-depth interviews as well as participant observation. Information from the case
study was organised according to the DPSIR model categories.
The case study shows that this model is ambiguous when used as an analytical tool in
value-laden complex situations, where multiple perspectives and definitions exist. In that
sense, current definitions of the DPSIR framework establish the need for a scientific causal
proof of the relationship between pressures and impacts, relying on a strong realistic view
of knowledge. Stakeholders agree in describing the state of the agro-environment in
Catalonia as being in crisis although their positions differ regarding the role played by
GMOs. GM agriculture is seen by a group of actors as a pressure on the agro-environment,
while for others it represents a modernising response not only to an economic but also to
an environmental crisis. These differences depend on the world-view and they are also a
function of the state of knowledge, the consideration of uncertainty for policy-making, the
assessment of the significance of the impacts, the selection of indicators or the
demarcation of the specific system of interest and the policy-objective, as well as of the
scale to be considered.
In the frame of the ALARM project, a redefinition of the DPSIR categories is proposed,
aiming to reflect on these complex situations by better acknowledging different legitimate
perspectives and narratives. This is achieved by, on the one hand, allowing alternative
descriptions and making visible the differences in positions among stakeholders and, on
the other hand, by taking into consideration social and political aspects besides the
economic and environmental spheres.
Article 4: ’Transgenic Treadmill’: Responses to the emergence and spread of
Glyphosate-Resistant Johnsongrass in Argentina
The broad-spectrum herbicide glyphosate has become the largest-selling crop-protection
product worldwide. Over the last years, the agricultural use of glyphosate has risen due to
price reductions, to an increase in supply associated with patent expiration, to further
implementation of minimum and non-tillage practices and to the adoption of genetically
modified (GM) glyphosate-resistant (GR) cultivars.
Although it was initially considered a low-risk herbicide for weed-resistance, the use of
glyphosate has been in the last years associated to the appearance of a growing number of
tolerant or resistant weeds, with socio-environmental consequences besides loss of
17
productivity. Herbicide-resistant weeds associated to an increased consumption of
glyphosate by GR cropping systems have become one of the main ecological risks
discussed in the literature on GMOs.
In 2002, a glyphosate-resistant biotype of johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense (L.))
appeared in Argentina, where over 16 million hectares are devoted to GM glyphosateresistant soybeans. The invasion is covering in 2008 at least 10.000 hectares. In this paper
this case was reviewed, discussing the associated management strategies through an
analysis of the political, economic and institutional driving forces leading to this
phenomenon. We also devoted part of the paper to analyse the consequences for rural
dynamics, starting from the environmental history of the weed in Argentina.
In general, the neo-liberal approach to agriculture is one where the determination of the
agrarian dynamics and changes is left to the free market. This is done by means of
dumping decisions to the individual sphere, and by setting self interested free choice as the
only way of safeguarding rights and liberties. The same reasoning operates regarding weed
management resistance. However, the social consequences from the application of this
approach to weed resistance management have been under-explored. Two approaches
summarize the different attitudes for managing weed resistance. The first one is identified
with “proactive” or “preventive” management, and includes identifying major pathways and
changing environmental conditions to reduce the likelihood of future resistance. The
second one is known as “reactive management”, and implies actions which aim at reducing
the costs of weed resistance by changing the herbicide when it stops controlling the pest,
applying the most cost-efficient technology at any given time. These two strategies are also
known as mitigation and adaptation.
The aim of this paper was to analyze the driving forces behind the initial spread of GR
johnsongrass and the social, economic and environmental implications that pre-emptive or
reactive biosecurity strategies have at a societal level. Reasons behind farmers’ willingness
or reluctance to adopt preventive resistance management strategies are also discussed, as
well as the institutional conditions and constraints. The existence of a new form of treadmill
phenomenon, not only leading to the increase of herbicide use but also to the intensification
in the use of GM crops, was also explored.
18
Final remarks
The four articles presented in this thesis converge in the idea that socio-economic
considerations on biosafety are becoming major issues in the environmental agenda.
However, they also show that there are still serious disputes on how to handle and
integrate them.
This PhD starts from the importance of incorporating the different stakeholders’ points of
view and values when approaching to biosafety issues. The different cases point to the
existence of different perspectives concerning the studied topics. In spite of it, both IS and
GMOs are usually managed in a technical way, without taking into account the different
perceptions and concepts and without analysing the context of application. The articles
submitted here show that these divergent –and often conflicting- perceptions are rooted in
a clash of rationales or world-views, usually leading to divergent development proposals
and policy actions, which cannot be only discussed in a technical manner. In that sense,
this thesis suggests that biosafety governance needs to be broadened in order to allow
questioning not only if something is safe or if the benefits are proportionate to the costs but
also if it is desirable, meaningful and contributes to the sort of future we want. In that sense,
biosafety governance should not only focus on the means, but also on the objectives to be
achieved.
This implies bringing into the decision-making process the stakeholders’ perspectives.
Participation influences the legitimacy of decisions, but it also improves the knowledge of
the problem by expanding the boundaries of the system. This suggestion, in line with the
so-called “post-normal science” (Funtowicz and Ravetz, 1994), can help in focusing the
attention to the socially-relevant aspects, democratising both the processes of conducting
research and of taking decisions. The integratation of socio-economic aspects responds
also to a quality requirement and to the need to rethink the relationship between science
and policy (Funtowicz and Strand, 2007).
Update of the case studies
Since some of the articles were written in the last three years, some changes have been
occurred since then. This section aims to update the findings of this PhD by shortly
describing them.
After the publication of the first article of this thesis, the zebra mussel has spread through
the Spanish river basins (Rodríguez-Labajos et al., 2008), including the main course of the
Ebro River and some of its tributaries, the Jucar and Segura. Since 2006, the Catalan
19
Water Agency launched a regional strategy to control the zebra mussel, which integrated
results obtained from the development of participatory scenarios within ALARM project (led
by Beatriz Rodríguez-Labajos).
Some other changes are related to the GM coexistence issue in Catalonia and Aragon.
After the two articles on this issue of this PhD were written, the Catalan Organic
Certification Body (CCPAE) published, for the first time, the data on the surface of organic
maize for the last years. It documented the existence of 34 hectares of maize in 2007
(CCPAE, 2008), which represents a decrease of 65% since 2001, In the 2008 campaign,
only 5 hectares of organic maize are left in Catalonia10. These data confirm the trend
noticed in the articles, putting the Catalan figures on a level with the results in Aragon.
Meanwhile, in recent statements, the Ministry of Agriculture assured that it is not going to
regulate the coexistence issue for the moment, “due to the difficulty for establishing a
norm”11 while it waits that the dispute between the Member States (or Regions) and the
European Commission for the authority to establish coexistence measures is solved (Lee,
2008).
Finally, regarding the GR johnsongrass case, major changes could occur during the next
months. In that sense, the decline of commodity prices including soybeans during the
second half of 2008 might lead to a questioning of the export-led growth model. From July
to October 2008 soybean price lost 45% of its value12. In Argentina, this has been
translated in a sharp fall in land sales and leasing rents. Small producers, despite the low
prices, “are forced to it (sell land) as they are afraid of losing all what they have”13, which
will reinforce the trend towards land concentration described in the fourth paper of the
thesis.
10
Dani Valls, CCPAE president, interviewed by El País, 21st October 2008; pp. 37.
11
Francisco Mombiela, director for Industry and Food Markets, interviewed by El País, 21st October 2008;
pp. 37.
12
“El precio de la soja cayó más de 45% por la crisis global”. Tiempo Pyme, 11th October. Available at:
http://www.tiempopyme.com/despachos.asp?cod_des=61306&ID_Seccion=128 (retrieved 27th October
2008).
13
“Con la caída del precio de la soja, se desplomó la venta de campos”. Available at: www.puntal.com.ar
(retrieved 27th October 2008).
20
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30
Article 1:
A Social Analysis of the Bioinvasions of Dreissena polymorpha in
Spain and Hydrilla verticillata in Guatemala
Published in Environmental Management
31
32
Environ Manage (2007) 40:555–566
DOI 10.1007/s00267-006-0206-x
A Social Analysis of the Bioinvasions of Dreissena polymorpha in
Spain and Hydrilla verticillata in Guatemala
Rosa Binimelis Æ Iliana Monterroso Æ Beatriz Rodrı́guez-Labajos
Received: 16 June 2006 / Accepted: 21 March 2007
Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2007
mental change (Vitousek and others 1996, 1997, OTA
1993, Sala and others 2000). Therefore, the subject has
become significant for conservation policy. For instance,
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 2002) states
that ‘‘each contracting party shall, as far as possible, and as
appropriate, prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats
or species.’’
Invasion processes are considered a human-induced
phenomenon. This human involvement comprises not only
the configuration of driving forces (Dalmazzone 2000,
Kowarik 2003), the perception of the impacts (Levine and
others 2003), and the implementation of responses
(McNeely and others 2001), but also the very conception
of the invasive process as an environmental and socioeconomic problem (Shrader-Frechette 2001).
In spite of this multiplicity of social elements, knowledge of biological invasions has been mostly influenced by
the scientific approaches of biogeography and ecology
(Pyšek and others 2004, Shine and others 2000, Williamson
1996). Research in these fields has examined invasiveness
of the species and invasibility of the ecosystems. These
studies have successfully contributed to increased knowledge on the ecological and biological factors in the process
of invasion. The social analysis of bioinvasions, particularly from the economic perspective, counts with the
influential work developed by Pimentel and others (2001,
2005) and Perrings and others (2000). The present paper is
a contribution from social research. Its main objective
consists of examining the positions of different stakeholders in relation to invasive species, and discussing how
such social analysis can help in managing bioinvasions.
This article draws upon the literature on sustainability
that emphasizes complexity and the legitimacy of different
criteria for evaluation, uncertainty, and the emergence of
Abstract Human agency plays a key role in the processes
of biological invasions. This comprises not only the human
role in the configuration of driving forces or in the perception of the impacts, but also the conceptualization of
alien species themselves as an environmental problem.
This paper examines different stakeholders’ positions in
bioinvasion processes at different scales, and it looks at
their relevance for the management of invasive species. It
compares two cases: the invasion process of Dreissena
polymorpha in the Ebro River in Spain and the case of
Hydrilla verticillata in Lake Izabal, Guatemala. Our results
are structured according to impacts and to management
options. The discussion focuses on the relevance of
incorporating the different stakeholders’ interests and values in the analysis and management of biological invasions. Although social analysis of stakeholders’ positions is
necessary in order to foster management actions, it also
reveals conflicts on the relevant criteria and on the very
definition of invasive species.
Keywords Invasive species Biodiversity conservation Stakeholders Social analysis Hydrilla verticillata Dreissena polymorpha Ebro River Lake Izabal
Introduction
Biological invasions are highlighted as major causes of
biodiversity loss, playing a key role in global environ-
R. Binimelis (&) I. Monterroso B. Rodrı́guez-Labajos
Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus UAB, Ed. Ciències; Torre 5
(parells), 4 pl., 08193 Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
33
123
556
Environ Manage (2007) 40:555–566
Thompson 2000, 2001). This is the approach used by the
CBD (2002) to define invasive species: ‘‘alien species that
threaten ecosystems, habitats or species with economic or
environmental harm.’’
Lastly, a third notion considers the concept of alien
invasive species as a social construction inspired by nativism, a discriminative ideology based on personal or cultural
values (Theodoropoulos 2003). This author illustrates with
examples his view on the economic interests (e.g., controlrelated chemical industry) behind an overstated consideration of biological invasions as threats to welfare. A main
conclusion of Theodoropoulos’ controversial book is the
collusion of the scientific community with such economic
interests and cultural values (Simberloff 2003a).
The differences in the conceptualization of invasive
species will determine what policy options are to be taken
and which are the targeted species, if any. The first type of
definition is claimed as value free (Daehler 2001). However, it is still context dependent because the notion of
alien entails the delimitation of temporal and geographic
boundaries (Davis and Thompson 2000). Moreover, some
degree of arbitrariness is inherent in the idea of overabundant introduced species (Shrader-Frechette 2001).
Furthermore, aside from the problem of boundaries
delimitation, focusing on all introduced species promotes
the notion that they are intrinsically less desirable than
native species (Simberloff 2003b). In policy terms, the issue is still open to subjectivity, as decisions are taken
regarding which species should be managed. The obvious
budget limitations require prioritization.
A historical approach also reveals changes in subjective
perceptions. While Crosby (1986) points out an ‘‘ecological imperialism’’ in America, Australia, and New Zealand,
tied to the transport of biota—including pathogens and
weeds—by the Europeans, other species have been historically considered beneficial. This is the case with many
introduced crops, such as maize in the food system of some
European and African regions (Pimentel and others 2001).
In addition, some species can be judged as beneficial
during a period and damaging afterward, as economically
profitable but environmentally harmful (like black wattle
(Acacia mearnsii) in South Africa (de Wit and others
2001)), or as having positive and negative impacts on the
same dimension at the same time. For instance, saltcedar
(genus Tamarix) is reported to have negative ecological
impacts such as the displacement of native vegetation or
increased soil salinization while at the same time it can
control erosion (Shafroth and others 2006).
The present study is based on the analysis of two cases,
which allow the comparison of invasion processes in two
aquatic ecosystems. The two cases are examples not of
successful prevention but of ex-post attempts to manage
the invasion.
different issues at different temporal and geographical
scales (Ravetz 1971, Strand 2002, Munda 2003,
Rauschmayer 2003, Giampietro 2004). Invasive species
occur at a local scale, but many drivers act at a large scale:
for instance, the intensification of global trade, the utilization of faster means of transport, or the expansion of
industrial agriculture (McNeely and others 2001). Therefore, for policy actions, multidisciplinary approaches are
needed to link these drivers with the specific impacts of the
species at local level in order to be able to meet the challenge of these global-local relations (Giampietro 2004).
The paper is structured in four main sections. The first
introduces the issue of biological invasions, with special
emphasis on the definitions used in the literature. The
following section explains the two case studies, starting
with a description of the analyzed species in order to display relevant ecological features of both invasion processes. Socio-economic and environmental characteristics
of host ecosystems are then discussed in order to establish
interactions between the conditions of recipient ecosystems
(invasibility) and the invasive species that explain establishment and could favor further spread. In the third section, an analysis of stakeholders is presented showing how
they value the multidimensional impacts and effects of the
invasion process. Social groups participate as drivers, as
affected by the invasions and as promoters of management
options. A brief description of the relevant management
alternatives in the two cases is presented. A key aspect of
this analysis is the discussion of the appropriate scale and
how it should be delimited.
Biological Invasions as a Complex Phenomenon
Biological invasions are framed by different interpretations
of this phenomenon. Thus, a range of definitions is used to
try to describe these processes, usually by taking into
account ecological and/or socioeconomic as well as temporal and geographic aspects. A literature review of the
definition of alien invasive species suggests three groups of
definitions.
A first group of definitions highlights the ecological and
biogeographic aspects, such as spatial distribution and/or
population trends. Daehler’s definition of alien invasive
species serves as an illustration: ‘‘those species that
intentionally and unintentionally spread in new habitats
aided by human agency at high growth rates, trespassing
new habitats after the Neolithic era’’ (Daehler 2001, Pyšek
and others 2004).
A second group of definitions is guided by policy
objectives that emphasize mitigation of negative impacts
on biological diversity, human welfare, or both (Shine and
others 2000, McNeely and others 2001, Davis and
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nized the Great Lakes and extended through the Mississippi River down to the Gulf of Mexico (Minchin and
others 2002). The large distribution of this species is a
result of its highly reproductive capability—a mature
female produces one million individuals per year—and its
ability to survive out of the water for several days (Olenin
and others 1999). The most important pathways for its
spread are shipping activities (ballast water, hull fouling)
and the creation of invasion corridors such as canals
(Carlton 1996, Kraft and others 2002, Minchin and Golash
2002). Its main impacts are related to two distinctive features: removing planktonic organisms and particulate
matter by filtering water and attaching to solid surfaces in
very high densities (Johnson and Padilla 1996). Pipes and
other infrastructures can be seriously damaged, causing
important economic impacts (Pimentel and others 2005).
The second species studied is hydrilla, an aquatic plant
belonging to the family Hydrocharitaceae. Hydrilla is a
fast-growing plant well adapted to a wide range of limnological conditions because of its polymorphic features
and metabolism (Langeland 1996). It can live at a depth of
7 m with a growth rate of 5 to 10 cm daily. It spreads by
fragments, rhizomes, turions, and seeds (Arrivillaga 2002).
This plant can resist some days outside water. Turions can
survive several years buried in sediments.
Hydrilla was first introduced from Southeast Asia into
North America via aquarium trade, where it was cultured
and sold as an ornamental plant in the late 1950s. It spread
rapidly in the natural waterways of the southern United
States during the 1960s and 1970s. Despite the halting of
its commercial sale by the U.S. government in the 1980s, it
continued spreading. In Central America, hydrilla was first
found in Lake Gatun in Panama, in the 1970s. It became an
agricultural problem in the 1980s in Mexico (Haller 2002).
A Comparative Approach to Invasion Processes
Methodology
The investigation was divided into three phases. The first
involved the collection of socio-economic and historical
information regarding the areas of study and the development of the invasion processes. Institutional analysis tools
were used during this phase. Then, information was processed and compared in the two aquatic systems in order to
identify factors associated with vulnerability of recipient
ecosystems, and the socio-economic conditions of affected
areas. Socio-economic and biological information was used
for classifying groups of stakeholders and analyzing their
perception of impacts on environmental functions.
The objective of the third phase was to come up with
those management alternatives supported by the different
groups of stakeholders. Common aspects in the responses
to the invasion processes were identified. To this aim,
participatory techniques involving local people in the
research process included workshops, semistructured group
and individual in-depth interviews, and also participant
observation. Qualitative techniques were selected for their
usefulness in obtaining in-depth information as well as
promoting the participation of different groups.
Description of the Case Studies
An ex-post analysis was conducted for two cases of biological invasions in aquatic ecosystems: one in the Mediterranean Ebro region of Spain, the other in the tropical
region of Lake Izabal in Guatemala. The studied species
were the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) and the
macrophyte hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), respectively.
Both species are listed in the Global Invasive Species
Program database among the 100 most noxious invasives
of the world (http://www.issg.org/database). Introduction
was accidental in both cases, possibly through nonintentional but foreseeable events (Monterroso 2005, Rodriguez-Labajos 2006).
Characteristics of the Invaded Ecosystems
Both cases occur in environmentally rich ecosystems in
regions with a history of isolation from political centers.
Hydrological resources in these areas are important for
subsistence activities as well as for industrial economic
interests.
The Ebro case came into the open in 2001 when local
residents found some specimens of zebra mussel. A local
environmentalist group alerted the relevant authorities. A
first study monitoring its presence in the Ebro revealed that
colonization of this species was affecting an area of 40 km
in the south part of this region (Grup de Natura Freixe and
Jiménez Ruiz 2002). Recently, the presence of zebra
mussel was detected in the Sobron reservoir, in the headwaters of the Ebro (CHE 2006). The invaded area under
study is located in the lower part of the Ebro River, 60 km
from the Delta. It belongs to two autonomous regions of
Perfect Aquatic Invasives: Characteristics of
D. polymorpha and H. verticillata
The zebra mussel is a bivalve mollusk belonging to the
family Dreissenidae, with a triangular shell reaching up to
50 mm. It occurs in freshwater habitats such as estuaries,
rivers, and lakes at temperatures ranging between 12°C and
20°C but it can survive between 0 and 30°C (Olenin and
others 1999).
During the last 200 years, the zebra mussel has spread
around Europe (Karatayev and others 1997) and in the mid
1980s, the species reached North America, where it colo-
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Spain: Aragon and Catalonia. By the middle 1960s, three
dams (Mequinensa, Riba-roja, and Flix, all of them now
affected by the presence of zebra mussels) were built as
hydroelectric power plants, dramatically changing the way
of living of many of the flooded village inhabitants.
By 1985, the Ascó nuclear plants (2000 MW) started
their activity some kilometers to the south. Close to Ascó
in Flix, highly polluted loads coming from the chemical
factory, Erkimia, have been regularly dumped into the
reservoir (Grimalt and others 2003). The region has also
experienced intense social protests in the last several years
against the intended plan to transfer water from the Ebro to
southeast of Spain.
The main economic activities in the area are agriculture
(fruit trees in the irrigated area; olive and almond trees and
vineyards in the dry one), pig and poultry breeding,
industry (energy and chemicals), and services, especially
tourism. Since the late 1970s, tourist activities have grown
in importance, related to sport-fishing. Anglers from Europe arrive in the area for fishing wels catfish (Silurus
glanis), carp (Cyprinus carpio), or black-bass (Micropterus
salmoides). Local environmental authorities estimate that
70% of all the fish species that can be found in the area are
non-native. One plausible hypothesis for the arrival of
zebra mussel in the area is that larvae were brought in the
water where living baits are transported. Other pathways
could have been boats or anchors.
Despite water pollution and the changes along the river
course, the Ebro is still the habitat for many aquatic species, including endangered species such as the bivalve
Margaritifera auricularia. Natural habitats include Mediterranean bushes and some woods of white pine (Pinus
halepensis). Along the riverbank, other vegetal communities such as reedbeds and poplar forests give shelter to a
remarkable abundance of local and migratory birds. For
this reason, some areas are already protected and some
others are proposed as Natura 2000 sites.
The second case takes place in Lake Izabal, the largest
freshwater ecosystem in Guatemala. The lake is more than
700 km2. It drains to the Caribbean Sea. In 2000, local
residents reported the outgrowth of an aquatic plant. Early
analysis revealed the presence of hydrilla covering over
21 km2 (Haller 2002). Izabal watershed includes both
freshwater and marine ecosystems. It represents an
important tourist and commercial site. The lake outlet to
the east is a heavily populated tourist area, Rio Dulce,
widening into the Caribbean Sea. Along its shores are 19
urban centers with more than 800,000 inhabitants belonging to the q’ekchi Mayan indigenous group and ladino1
communities (Segeplan 2003).
1
The region has experienced a history of oppression that
deepened during the Civil War (1960–1996), and continued
because of mining activities (Cuffe 2005). Lake Izabal has
been an important navigation route for export products,
mainly coffee, until roads were built in 2001. Although
commercial transport is no longer a relevant activity, there
are communities that can only be reached by boat. Tourism
has become an important activity, attracting international
visitors who bring their boats and anchor in marinas
located around the lake. Other important economic activities are commercial crops (banana and African palm),
cattle raising, and fishing (commercial and sport).
International companies conducted open cast mining 20
years ago. The corrupt process that gave rise to the
National Law of Mining (1983), resulted in the deaths of
civic leaders and members of parliament (Cuffe 2005).
This activity was given up for more than twenty years
(nickel prices went down in the mid 1980s). It is now reemerging in the midst of social protests. Environmentalist
groups and local settlers have emphasized the effects of
mining on the water quality and on the lake ecosystem in
general.
Haller (2002) dates the first appearance of H. verticillata
in Guatemala further back to 1990, found in isolated ponds.
It has been argued that its introduction in Lake Izabal was
primarily caused by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 (Haller
2002). Other hypotheses point to an accidental introduction
via tourist boat activities or inappropriate aquarium disposals. Protection of the Lake is relevant for conservation
purposes because there are different endangered species
that inhabit the east shore, including manatees (Trichechus
manatus) and crocodiles (Crocodylus moreletti) as well as
several endemic aquatic birds. Efforts to preserve these
ecosystems include the creation of a wildlife refuge listed
on the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance. This wetland area is co-managed by environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), national
universities, and the National Council of Protected Areas.
Results
Stakeholders and Their Positions
This section aims to analyze the stakeholders’ perceptions
of the invasion processes as an environmental problem.
From the review of the institutional context, the following
configuration of stakeholders can be presented (Table 1).
In both study cases, several administrations (local and
regional) have competences in the area. On the one hand,
municipalities are responsible for urban planning, whereas
most of the decisions regarding environmental policies are
made at the regional level. Additionally, there is a specific
Ladino is equivalent to mestizo.
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Table 1 List of stakeholders and description of their activities
Stakeholders
D. polymorpha—Ebro River
H. verticillata—Lake Izabal
Administrations Different administrations have competences on the area: the Three municipalities have jurisdiction in the lake. Moreover,
Catalan and Aragon governments, municipalities (they have
AMASURLI, the Authority for Sustainable Management of
competences on water quality controls, urbanism, and
Rio Dulce Watershed has direct jurisdiction for water
tourism activities) and the Ebro Hydrographical
quality and waste management. A military naval base
Confederation (CHE), a supraregional entity in charge of
controls transport of goods in boats
the watershed management
Environmental Grup de Natura Freixe is a local conservationist group that
Defensores de la Naturaleza co-manages the protected area,
organizations
manages the Natural Reserve for the Wild Fauna of Sebes
including the wetland. Asociación Amigos del Lago is also
and Flix meander. It was the first organization to report
involved in tourism. Eco-Rı́o was the first formal
presence of Dreissena polymorpha
organization to report presence of Hydrilla
Fishing
associations
Various fishing associations are in charge of issuing fishing
permits. They organize national and international angling
competitions
Traditional fishermen are organized in three associations
Tourism
Several marinas and camping facilities rent boats and angling There are local tourist committees as well as tourist
organizations
gear and sell tourism packages
organizations including marinas
Water transport
organizations
—
Lancheros, owners of public and tourist transport boats, are
organized in water transport organizations.
Agro industry
Several irrigation communities
There are three important agro-industries: banana, African
palm, and rice plantations
Energy and
mining
sector
ENDESA, controls the Ascó nuclear and the hydroelectric
power plants
Exmibal (mining concession for >40 years) along with other
three companies
Chemical
industry
Erkimia, a chemical industry, uses water for production of
chlorine and soda, chlorine derivates, chloride solvents and
bicalcic phosphate
Subsistence
agriculture
—
—
Represented by women and indigenous organizations
Source: Modified from Binimelis and others 2005
the environmental organization co-managing the Ramsar
area in Lake Izabal has direct competence in managing
hydrilla. In both cases, environmental organizations first
translated local awareness and concerns to the government. Moreover, they have been monitoring and providing information to other stakeholders regarding
impacts and possible actions to avoid further spread. In
fact, environmental organizations have been crucial in
focusing public attention on the invasive species and
highlighting the environmental impacts they cause. In
both cases, environmentalists have used the presence of
invasive species as an indicator of ongoing ecosystem
degradation.
It is important to notice that there are economic losses in
both cases. The most direct economic losses in the Ebro
have been related to water uptake facilities and the energy
sector, whereas hydrilla has mainly affected tourism and
navigation. Stakeholders have opted for technical solutions
that temporarily ameliorate the problem. Some of these
social actors are still reluctant to apply severe control
measures. Such is the case of marinas and angling camps in
the Ebro River. They experience constant colonization of
their water pipes by zebra mussels but oppose management
alternatives that interfere with their tourism activities.
body at the watershed level in both study areas, with
jurisdiction for water extraction permits and water quality,
and for waste management. In the Ebro, the Hydrographical Confederation is viewed by municipalities as an
organization linked to the energy and chemical industry
and agrobusiness interests. Its position regarding zebra
mussel would favor management alternatives with cheaper
economic consequences for these sectors.
In the case of Izabal, the water authority (AMASURLI,
acronym in Spanish for Authority for the Sustainable
Management of Rio Dulce Watershed) is the regional
organization in charge of coordinating activities with the
three municipalities that have jurisdiction in the lake. It is a
governmental organization that, despite being linked directly to the Secretary of Presidency, lacks human resources and the financial support necessary to establish
successful coordination and management of hydrilla. The
role of AMASURLI as a regional organization in charge of
coordinating and regulating tourism, transport, and
monitoring in the lake is not recognized by all the other
stakeholders in the lake.
NGOs have no formal role in the design of policies,
although they help in implementing policy measures if
asked or allowed to do so by the administrations. Thus,
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ecosystem services classification helps to illustrate the
human dependence on ecosystem functioning and the
impacts that invasive species cause on it (Binimelis and
others 2007). Impacts may be consistently classified
through four categories, depending on which type of ecosystem service is affected:
However, in the long run, the zebra mussel invasion might
cause bad publicity for the angling industry.
Another example is the agro-industry plantations and
transport associations in Lake Izabal that oppose alternatives that constraint their activities, because the hydrilla’s
impact on their facilities is minor. The relationship of some
stakeholders to the invasion can be ambivalent, because
they perceive some impacts but at the same time, their
practices have probably influenced the level of spread. For
instance, the use of fertilizers in plantations of agro-export
products in Lake Izabal increases the level of nutrients that
can accelerate the reproduction of hydrilla. The movement
of boats between reservoirs in the Ebro, which is promoted
by marinas, favors the spread of zebra mussel.
Different publicly and privately funded scientific groups
have conducted research activities in each region. These
different research groups are associated with the stakeholders listed in Table 1; therefore, they were not included
as separate groups. Private sector actors have been highly
active in the Ebro promoting involvement of different research teams, focusing on the development of systems to
protect their own facilities from zebra mussel negative
effects. Government organizations have guided all studies
on the effects of hydrilla in Guatemala, prioritizing those
management alternatives that restore affected socio-economic activities.
Fishing associations have not been active in research or
in promoting any form of management in either case.
Nonetheless, their participation is relevant because fishing
is an important vector of spread. Efforts to establish a
commission that integrates and represents stakeholders
from both public and private sectors have been launched in
the Ebro River and Lake Izabal. However, interviews and
participatory workshops have revealed a clash of interests
that has made coordinated initiatives more difficult.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Thus, the impacts of zebra mussel and hydrilla can be
considered as disruptions in the provision of environmental
services supplied by the aquatic ecosystems. A fifth category, impacts on human-made capital, has been added in
the case of zebra mussel, because damages to infrastructure
are high and they cannot be considered directly as loss of
benefits obtained from ecosystems. Next, a presentation of
these impacts is displayed (Tables 2 and 3). It is based on
the analysis of stakeholder interviews and available reports.
Both areas provide water for drinking, industrial and
agricultural activities, and the aquatic ecosystems have
recreational uses. In both cases, the use of these environmental services has been affected by the invading species.
Both species also can have impacts on human health. Zebra
mussel and hydrilla are considered to cause the loss of
native species through competition and displacement. In
the long term, both species can lead to the disruption of
ecosystems, resulting in changes to community structures,
the altering of phytoplankton communities, and an increase
in the presence of macrophytes.
Perceived impacts can be assessed by quantitative and
qualitative indicators. Thus, for instance, the effects of
zebra mussel on trophic structure may be measured by
indicators of phytoplankton density (cell density lg/l) and/
or population changes (percentage of juvenile and adult
fishes, weight), and the impacts on infrastructure can be
disclosed by estimating the number of installed filters or
the cost of the installations. Some of these impacts thus can
be reduced to monetary values (either as damage costs or
abatement costs) but many require other types of qualitative or quantitative indicators.
Multidimensional Effects of Biological Invasions:
Characterization of Impacts
Despite the existence of various studies on the zebra
mussel invasion in the Ebro River and hydrilla in
Lake Izabal, the socio-economic impacts have scarcely
been researched (Aragon Government 2004, Grup de
Natura Freixe and Jiménez Ruiz 2002, FIPA-AID 2003,
Arrivillaga 2002, Haller 2002).
Impacts were ordered using the categories of ecosystem
services proposed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003). By affecting the ecological processes at the
genetic, species, and ecosystems level, biological invasions
modify the provision of ecosystem services, defined as
‘‘the conditions and the processes through which natural
ecosystems, and the species that make them up, sustain and
fulfill human life’’ (Daily 1997). Thus, the use of the
123
Supporting services are those necessary for the production of the other categories of ecosystem services;
Provisioning services refer to the products obtained
from ecosystems, such as food or timber;
Regulating services are benefits supplied by selfmaintenance properties of ecosystems;
Cultural services generate nonmaterial benefits derived
from ecosystems.
Definition of Management Options
In both cases, diverse management alternatives have been
proposed or developed by the various stakeholders. These
management alternatives are classified depending on their
final aim as business-as-usual, adaptation, or mitigation
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561
Table 2 Impacts of Dreissena polymorpha in Ebro
Disruption
Impact description: damages or remedial measures
Dimension
Zebra mussel can filter 1 L of water per day, retaining phytoplankton
Ecological
Supporting services
Trophic alteration
Regulating services: benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes
Water transparency
Increase of transparency due to the filtering capacity of zebra mussel
Ecological
Changes in substrate
Changes in substrate due to accumulation of shell deposits
Ecological
Increased presence of
macrophytes
Increase in the presence of macrophytes because the solar light
reaches deeper levels
Ecological
Vectors for parasites and
Appearance of cyanobacteria (Phormidium) related to the activity of
diseases
zebra mussel, the lack of flow, and high temperature
Provisioning services: products obtained from ecosystems
Competition with local
species
The endangered species Margaritifera auriculata; Anodonta cygnea;
Unio elongatulus are menaced by the zebra mussel
Ecological
Ecological
Cultural services: recreation and other nonmaterial benefits obtained from ecosystems
Loss of navigation/angling
services
Fishing lines have been cut by the mussels
Economic
Use of antifouling paintings in boats
Economic/
ecological
Several cleaning stations for boats had to be built.
Economic
Boat cleaning rate fee every time anglers enter and leave the reservoir
Impacts on human made capital (infrastructures)
Effect in water intake facilities
(human consumption)
Economic
Cleaning chemical treatment of the water (chlorine)
Economic/social
Cleaning of the intake tank filters due to the mussel or to the increase
of macrophytes (indirect effect)
Economic
Installation of new suction pump and pipes
Economic
Irrigation systems
Affecting of the pipes and regulation water tanks
Economic
Effects in hydroelectrical
power plant
Change of grilles
Economic
Effects in the refrigeration
system of Ascó nuclear plant
Use of antifouling paints in intake water facilities
Economic
Cleaning activities in the tanks: increase of the water temperature
Economic
Use of antifouling paints
Economic
Based on: Aragon Government 2004, Asociación Nuclear Ascò-Vandellós 2003, Grup de Natura Freixe and Jiménez 2002, Masip and Rofes
2003, and individual and group interviews
invasion and the measures for its prevention. Other measures include steam disinfections of boats before and after
being used in the area. Adaptation actions would include
the private management system established by the Ascó
nuclear plant, which heats the water to 38°C before
entering the power station, the protection of pipes by filters
or floating barriers, and the use of anti-fouling paints in
order to prevent the attachment of mussels to boats and
grilles (Asociación Nuclear Ascó-Vandellós 2003). In Lake
Izabal, an information campaign was also launched by the
local authorities together with environmental organizations
(FIPA-AID 2003).
Mitigation focuses on actions before or after the initial
event of invasion by attempting to reduce both the invasiveness of the species and the invasibility of the ecosystem. Because both cases are ex-post, attempts at
eradication and control become examples of mitigation
actions, as defined by Perrings (2005). This approach places attention on the driving forces that allow the event to
activities. The list of proposed or implemented actions in
the two study cases is shown in Table 4. Contents of the
table derive from stakeholders’ interviews and workshops
and the analysis of available reports (Aragon Government
2004, Palau and others 2003, FIPA-AID 2003).
The business-as-usual alternative means in this case that
no action is taken by the administrations or any other social
actor to control the species. In the study cases, no stakeholder pointed explicitly to this alternative, but they would
support it if the implemented alternatives damaged their
interests.
The objective of adaptation actions would be to reduce
the impacts of introduction, establishment, and spread. The
emphasis is put on reducing the costs of the effects of the
invasion rather than influencing its likelihood (Perrings
2005). In the Ebro case, this strategy would include general
measures such as the information campaign conducted by
the Aragon Government. This consists of informative
posters explaining the consequences of zebra mussel
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Table 3 Impacts of Hydrilla verticillata in Lake Izabal
Disruption
Impact description
Dimension
Regulating services: benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes
Water transparency
Large amounts of hydrilla lower sediment resuspension and reduce phytoplankton by
compartmentalizing nutrients
Ecological
Changes in substrate
Hydrilla changes soil substrates of lake shores by accumulation of organic matter either
by the wind or physical removal of the plant
Ecological
Vectors for parasites
and diseases
Stagnation of waters may increase mosquito populations associated with dengue and malaria
Social
Injuries
Skin contact from swimming or physical removal of the plant causes skin sores and allergies
Social
Competition with local Displacement of native aquatic plant communities as Pistia stratiotes, Chara phoetida,
species
Patamogenton sp., and Vallisneria sp., some of them essential in the diet of the
endemic manatee
Ecological
Provisioning services: products obtained from ecosystems
Decrease in fish
production
Fishermen are unable to place fishing nets (trammels) where hydrilla is found because
the plant gets stuck in the nets
Economic
Suitable living space
for fish
Areas where hydrilla is found provide refuge to fish populations away from trawling fishers
Ecological/
economic
Cultural services: non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems
Fishing
Navigation/recreational
Fishermen have changed traditional fishing sites and techniques (harpoons
instead of trammels)
Economic/
social
Hydrilla obstructs water courses and impedes water access to communities in distant
areas of the lake
Social
Interferes with navigation of commercial and traditional craft as it gets stuck in the
engines of larger boats and only small vessels can go through, requiring constant
untangling of the plant
Economic
Increases cost of navigation fees due to higher use of fuel to pass areas where
the plant grows
Economic
Based on: Arrivillaga 2002, FIPA-AID 2003, Haller 2002, Langeland 1996, and individual and group interviews
control activities include using pathogens and other herbivorous organisms such as beetles (Bagous affinis), flies
(Hydrellia pakistanae), and carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) (Monterroso 2005). Chemical control is divided into
contact and systemic methods. The former includes nonselective herbicides (copper, diquat, or endothall). Systemic
methods (fluridone) are supposed to affect only hydrilla.
Impacts on other fauna and flora are assumed to be low or
nonexistent (Greenfield and others 2004).
happen. In the Ebro case, three measures have been suggested. On the one hand, emptying the Riba-roja reservoir
and thus lowering the water level for a few weeks would
expose larvae and adults to air. This would be totally
impractical for the very large Mequinensa reservoir. As an
alternative, a pilot test was conducted by the army,
assessing the feasibility of vacuum cleaning the zebra
mussels. The inspection and regulation of boat access at
Spanish or regional borders have also been suggested.
Chemical control is likely to be proposed (Rodrı́guezLabajos 2006). Notice that some actions may at the same
time be considered as mitigation and adaptation measures,
depending on the scale. Such is the case of the boat disinfection system, which locally helps to protect the boats
but also aims to avoid the spread of the species to other
water bodies.
For the control of hydrilla in Izabal, mechanical, biological, and chemical means have been used. Mechanical
control consists of the physical removal of the plant by
cutting or removing. It is divided into mechanized and hand
removal. In Izabal, both methods have been used. Local
peasants were hired to pull out the plant (up to a depth of 1.5
m) and a machine was used (FIPA-AID 2003). Biological
123
Discussion
Human agency is linked to the causes, perception of impacts, and responses to biological invasions. Thus, so as to
effectively address invasion processes, it is important to
take into account stakeholders’ interests and values. This
entails bringing into the decision-making process the perspectives of stakeholders by consultation and exchange of
information. In this sense, as we have seen, participatory
methodologies are a tool for improving the knowledge of
the problem. Participation also influences the legitimacy of
decisions around the management options.
40
Environ Manage (2007) 40:555–566
563
Table 4 Alternatives for the management of zebra mussel in Ebro River and hydrilla in Lake Izabal
Management alternatives
Status
Proponent stakeholders
Informative campaign
Implemented
Government of Aragon
Steam disinfection of boats
Implemented partially Government of Aragon, Ebro Hydrological Confederation
Heating water before enters the refrigeration
system in the nuclear power plant
Implemented
Zebra mussel in Ebro River
Business as usual (do nothing)
Adaptation actions
Ascò nuclear plant
Engineering solutions for protecting water uptake systems Implemented
Municipalities, industries, and irrigation communities
Use of anti-fouling paints
Implemented
Boat owners, tourism industry
Borders regulation of boats
Proposed
Group of experts working in other geographical areas
Emptying or lowering Riba-roja reservoir
Vacuum cleaning
Proposed
Testing
CEPIDE, Ebro Hydrological Confederation
Ebro Hydrological Confederation
Implemented
Municipalities, Watershed Authority (AMASURLI)
Mitigation activities
Hydrilla in Lake Izabal
Business as usual
Adaptation actions
Informative campaign
Mitigation activities
Physical removal control
Mechanized
Implemented
AMASURLI
By hand
Implemented
AMASURLI, tourism organizations
Pathogens
Proposed
AMASURLI
Herbivores
Proposed
AMASURLI
Contact
Testing
Private owners of marinas, AMASURLI
Systemic
Testing
Private owners of marinas, AMASURLI
Biological control
Chemical control
Based on: Aragon Government 2004; Palau and others 2003; FIPA-AID 2003; and individual and group interviews
Interdisciplinary approaches will allow the emergence
of different aspects, depending on the focus of analysis.
When analyzing the drivers of the invasion through participatory methodologies (focus groups, in-depth interviews), it was noted that stakeholders link the phenomena
of invasions to multiple causes, operating at various scales.
In that sense, including stakeholders’ perspectives would
imply an expansion of the system domain in any long-term
management scenario for both study cases. In this regard, it
can be appreciated that the topics included in the debate
often go beyond the presence of invasive species. The
invasion seems to be used to discuss other environmental
and socio-economic problems that take place in similar
scales involving the same set of stakeholders. Invasions are
even used to defend the environment. This is the case of the
rejection of the National Hydrological Plan in the Ebro.
The studied sites are affected by other biological invasions besides the described ones. By comparing stakeholders’ positions on the presence of different invasive
species, it is possible to elicit their working definition of
Additionally, as we have seen, the social analysis of
stakeholders has implications in terms of establishing the
boundaries of the system as well as the chosen scale when
assessing drivers, causes, and responses to invasive species.
The scale of analysis is a determinant cross-cutting issue
for all the steps in the invasion processes. This is due to
different reasons. First, pathways seem to be related to
motions outside the region in both study cases, via the
external movement of boats. Second, because these invasions take place in watersheds, both the perception of the
impacts and the management strategies involve different
scales: site, municipality, watershed, and regional administrations. Tied to every geographic scale there are different
suitable indicators of the effects and a specific configuration of stakeholders. Elements from all scales should play a
role in any initiative toward the invasion. Taking this into
account, definition of the response to the invasion should
take place through a participatory multiscale multi-stakeholder exercise. Thus, an open deliberation would avoid
reductionism and would disclose the power relations.
41
123
564
Environ Manage (2007) 40:555–566
pressure on the invaded ecosystem associated with socioeconomic and environmental conditions.
‘‘invasions.’’ In most cases, stakeholders’ definition is in
concordance with the ‘‘impact approach’’ type described in
the introduction to this paper. Despite using this common
framework, differences are then produced regarding which
criteria have to be prioritized. Research results from
fieldwork activities indicate that the presence of the Wels
catfish (Silurus glanis) in the Ebro is described by environmentalist groups as a problem, because it affects the
biodiversity of autochthonous species; meanwhile, it is
perceived as highly beneficial by municipalities, tourist
operators, and fishermen, who highlight its economic
benefits.
The vast majority of stakeholders refer to the presence
of zebra mussels in the Ebro and hydrilla in Lake Izabal as
a pest. This outlook could lead to a consensus on the
measures to be implemented. However, this is not the case.
Both cases occur in highly politically influenced contexts,
with conflicting stakeholder agendas. In the Ebro, during
the National Hydrological Plan debate of 2003–2004, the
risk of zebra mussel spread was a point raised in Brussels
to prevent the European Commission from funding the
water transfer. On the other hand, in Lake Izabal local
environmental groups have welcomed or at least used
hydrilla as a tool to draw attention to the deteriorating
condition of the lake caused by mining and agro-industry.
Because of experience with previous violent repression,
they would rather talk about hydrilla than mining. They
brought the bioinvasion case to the International Water
Tribunal. The Guatemalan state was accused of negligence
with regard to the deterioration of the lake. Invasive species are in theory a common enemy while mining is backed
by powerful interests. The underlying wider problem in
both cases is not hydrilla or zebra mussels themselves but
deciding who controls and uses water resources in the
watershed.
Therefore, the way in which the causes and impacts of
the invasive species are described would determine management decisions. In fact, officially in both cases the
chosen approach has been a technical one, reducing the
boundaries of the management scenario to a decision
regarding the most effective control option in monetary
terms. Consensus of future management scenarios for
ecosystems is not pursued; instead, technical measures to
manage invasion species are implemented. A broader
approach, nonetheless, would take into account watershed
management as a possible scenario for managing the
invasion process. This would involve participation from
social actors trying to fit their own economic and social
interests and values to the sustainability of aquatic ecosystems. This is difficult because on the one hand, social
actors evidenced disparities in the criteria employed to
value the impacts of the invasive species, whereas on the
other hand, there are different driving forces exerting
123
Conclusions
This paper compares two ongoing biological invasions to
show how the configuration of these phenomena as environmental issues depends on the stakeholders’ views on
drivers, impacts, and responses. Our focus is the analysis of
social conflicts among stakeholders with different interests
and values.
In principle, according to the definitions of invasive
species analyzed in the introduction, both case studies
could be seen as examples of invasions against which
stakeholders with different interests and values might fight
together against a common enemy. The situation is quite
different from an environmental conflict over mining, or
over production of chemicals and pollution, where stakeholders are on opposite sides of the economic/environmental divide. Here all stakeholders could prima facie have
a common purpose. However, invasions are paradoxically
used to defend the environment, as zebra mussels against
the National Hydrological Plan or hydrilla against mining
activities. Indeed, the discussion has revealed a lack of
common purpose. The very definition of invasive species is
contested. This is due to the divergence of understanding of
different topics:
1.
2.
3.
42
In terms of scale, it is unclear how the boundaries of
the system should be defined. The issue includes
conflicts on the scale of decision-making, meaning the
administrative political level at which management
actions should be decided. Scale is also relevant when
the origins of the issue have to be recognized, because
drivers are characterized by multiple causality.
As regards impacts, social actors express their perceptions appealing to different values and languages.
Impacts are perceived in different ‘‘units.’’ Thus,
stakeholders are able to select criteria that do not affect
their own interests (e.g., economic revenues). Some
actors, such as environmental groups and subsistence
agriculture associations, use sets of values pertaining
to other nonmonetary dimensions.
In both cases, management outcomes do not arise from
consensus; instead, partial responses are applied.
Management options are also a matter of controversy,
because the pros and cons of adaptation and mitigation
measures are unequally distributed. Most of the mitigation measures implemented or suggested in both
cases do not guarantee success of eradication or even
of control, whereas repercussions on different stakeholders remain uncertain and subject to value-laden
considerations.
Environ Manage (2007) 40:555–566
565
The inclusion of stakeholders in the process of designing, implementing, and monitoring management responses
to biological invasions is recommended. However, as we
have seen, although the social engagement of stakeholders
is necessary in order to foster management actions, it opens
up conflicts on the criteria that are relevant, on the scale to
be adopted, and on the very definition of invasive species
itself.
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we want to be of any help! Bull Ecol Soc Am 82:206
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Acknowledgments The ICTA-UAB group on the socio-economics
of biological invasions is funded by FP 6 Integrated Project
‘‘ALARM’’ (GOCE-CT-2003-506675). We are grateful to the
ALARM socio-economic team, Joan Martinez-Alier, Ines Omman,
Joachim Spangenberg, and also Wanda Born and Danny Chivers as
well as the ALARM invasive species team for their suggestions and
comments on our work. Moreover, we are particularly grateful to
local inhabitants and other stakeholders who actively collaborated in
the research process.
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44
Article 2:
Coexistence of plants and coexistence of farmers:
Is an individual choice possible?
Published in Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics
45
46
Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics (2008) 21:437–457
DOI 10.1007/s10806-008-9099-4
Ó Springer 2008
ROSA BINIMELIS
COEXISTENCE OF PLANTS AND COEXISTENCE OF FARMERS:
IS AN INDIVIDUAL CHOICE POSSIBLE?
(Accepted in revised form April 19, 2008)
ABSTRACT. The introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in
Europe has been characterized by controversy. In 2002, the European Union
introduced the concept of ‘‘coexistence’’ as a compromise solution that, through the
establishment of science-based technical measures, should allow the market to
operate freely while reducing policy conflicts on GMOs. However, the concept
remains highly contested and the technical measures difficult to apply. This paper
presents qualitative research on the conceptualization and implementation of the
coexistence framework in two regions of Spain (Catalonia and Aragon), where 42%
and 55% of maize was GM in 2006, respectively. In this context, the concept of
coexistence and its proposed implementation both fail to resolve previous conflicts
and actually work to generate new ones through the individualization of choice and
impacts. Considerations of the social conditions in which the technology and the
management measures are implemented were not taken into account. This resulted in
the promotion of biotechnological agriculture over other alternatives.
KEY WORDS: Coexistence, GMOs, liability, maize, organic agriculture, Spain
1.
INTRODUCTION
The use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in Europe has generated
a variety of policy responses that are under constant development. The
concept of coexistence, which was first introduced in 2002 by the European
Commission, has become one of the main topics of controversy. With a
double objective, this policy framework aimed, on the one hand, to deal
with the emerging concerns derived from the admixture between GM,
conventional, and organic crops. This issue was especially relevant for
organic producers, who are committed to a worldwide consensus not to use
GMOs (IFOAM, 2002; Barth et al., 2002). On the other hand, the coexistence concept intended to lift the existing ‘‘de-facto’’ moratorium within the
European Union on new commercial agro-food biotechnology applications
because, as stated by Franz Fischler, the Commissioner responsible for
agriculture, ‘‘no form of agriculture should be excluded in the EU’’
(European Commission, 2003a). As a compromise solution, the establishment of science-based technical measures to ensure coexistence had to allow
47
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R. BINIMELIS
the market to operate freely, while reducing the policy conflicts on GMOs
(Levidow and Boschert, 2007; Rodgers, 2007).
Accordingly, the European Commission issued non-binding guidelines
on coexistence in July 2003, to be developed and implemented by the
Member States. Coexistence was then defined as ‘‘the ability of farmers to
make a practical choice between conventional, organic, and GM crop
productions.’’ Demarked in the economic sphere, ‘‘co-existence thus concerns only the economic implications of GMO admixture, the measures to
achieve sufficient segregation between GM and non-GM production and the
costs of such measures’’ (European Commission, 2003b). Germany, Denmark, Portugal, and six of the Austrian Länder have adopted the coexistence guidelines into their legislation, while in the majority of other states
only draft measures have been issued (European Commission, 2006a).
Meanwhile, some Member States are requesting a European legal framework on coexistence, instead of developing National rules (Assembly of
European Regions, 2005).
Since the concept was coined, a corpus of literature related to the issue of
coexistence has emerged, including research papers, technical reports, and
various conference proceedings. On the one hand, most of the studies
regarding coexistence have dealt with the technical measures to ensure it. In
that sense, the first report on coexistence appeared in 2002, as a summary on
a conference organized by the German Federal Environmental Agency
(Barth et al., 2002). In the same year, two other official reports were published (Bock et al., 2002; Eastham and Sweet, 2002). In the first, published
by the European Environment Agency, the significance of pollen-mediated
gene flow from six major crops was assessed. The results of the report
showed difficulties to spatially isolate maize, oilseed rape, and sugar beet,
advising the implementation of barrier crops, isolation distances, and
information systems. The second report, conducted by the EC-Joint
Research Centre, was launched after a call in the EC communication ‘‘Life
Sciences and Biotechnology – A strategy for Europe’’ (European Commission, 2002). One of the main conclusions of this report was that coexistence
was feasible but required adjustments in the current farm practices. The
results were updated with the analysis of study cases (Messéan et al., 2006).
For an overview of the European research on coexistence in the 6th
Framework Programme, see European Commission (2006b).
The technical measures for ensuring coexistence have also been studied at
the national level by Tolstrup et al. (2003) and Christey and Woodfield (2001),
among others. Besides these general reports, agronomic aspects have been
covered by using both spatial simulation models (Belcher et al., 2007) and field
tests (e.g., for maize, see Henry et al., 2003; Ma et al., 2004; Devos et al.,
2005; Messeguer et al., 2006; Bannert and Stamp 2007; Weber et al., 2007;
48
COEXISTENCE OF PLANTS AND COEXISTENCE OF FARMERS
439
Langhof et al., 2008). The feasibility of GM crop containment has been
discussed by Snow (2002), Haygood et al. (2004), and Marvier and Van Acker
(2005), among others. Other technical perspectives include the economic
(Smyth et al., 2002; Beckmann et al., 2006) and the liability analysis of
coexistence (Koch, 2007; Rodgers, 2007).
On the other hand, a series of authors have highlighted the difficulties –
or impossibility – of coexistence between organic and GM-based agriculture
due to environmental, food safety, socio-economic, and ethical concerns. A
clash of rationales at the technical (Müller, 2003; Altieri, 2005; Ponti, 2005)
or conceptual level (Lyson, 2002; Levidow and Boschert, 2007; Verhoog,
2007; McAfee, 2008) is alleged, arguing for the declaration of GMO-free
regions (Schermer and Hoppichler, 2004; Jank et al., 2007). In these studies,
organic agriculture is usually understood not only in terms of input substitution, but also as a de-intensified and re-localized sustainable development model associated with a peasant and family farming view. This
conceptualization has also been named ‘‘agroecology,’’ ‘‘civic agriculture,’’
or ‘‘alternative agriculture,’’ depending on the emphasis or cultural context.
Most of these studies were conducted ex-ante, based on modeling and
experimental cases, or were done at the theoretical level due to the lack of
commercial fields in most European countries. The objective of this paper is to
discuss the concept of coexistence in regard to its objectives: as a policy frame
that aims to avoid conflicts by allowing the free market to operate. This is done
by analyzing the conceptualization and implementation of ‘‘coexistence’’ in
Catalonia and Aragon (NE of Spain) where 23,000 and 35,900 ha of GM maize
were planted respectively, during 2007. The results of this unique experience in
Europe are especially relevant for the European CommissionÕs assessment of
the implementation of coexistence, which will be reviewed during 2008.
The paper is organized as follows. First, I shall explain the methodology
used for conducting the study. Next, the research is contextualized by introducing the dynamics of the maize sector in the areas of study. An overview on
the legislative proposals at the Spanish and Catalan level to manage the
coexistence is also done. The following section analyses how the concept of
coexistence is conceived by different stakeholders, and discusses the feasibility
and implications of these different conceptualizations, focusing on the technical measures to ensure coexistence and the liability scheme. Finally, the
objectives of the coexistence framework are discussed in light of these results.
2.
METHODOLOGY
The results presented in this paper are part of on-going research that
started in 2002, using discourse analysis and qualitative techniques to elicit
49
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R. BINIMELIS
stakeholdersÕ points of view and practices. The choice of topic is due to the
authorÕs pre-existing interest in the debate on the introduction of agrobiotechnology in Spain, where I have taken part as a research scholar and as a
member of the agroecological movement in Catalonia. This involvement,
both as an activist and an academic, has allowed me to gain better access to
the informants and the information through the fieldwork and literature
review. At the same time, this has given me the opportunity to discuss the
progress and results of the research in both arenas, and personal involvement has not been too strong to allow fruitful discussions and interviews
with stakeholders on all sides of the political lines of conflict. My investigations have been conducted using an action research approach, trying to
articulate practical and action-oriented outcomes with reflection on participative, inclusive, and grounded in experience forms of understanding
(Reason and Bradbury, 2001). They have been driven by the intention to
make visible a situation that is not fully recognized. The research is, on one
hand, focused on the analysis of how the admixture of GM with non-GM
crops is framed by the different groups of stakeholders. In order to draw out
the different frames, I use a discourse analysis approach. This approach has
been widely used for analyzing environmental conflicts in general (Hajer,
1995) and also for controversies over biotechnology (Heller, 2002, 2006;
Levidow and Boschert, 2007; Levidow and Carr, 2007). Discourse is here
defined as a way to understand a shared system of knowledge or belief and
the social practices in which it is produced through which meaning is given
to the world (Hajer, 1995, p. 44).
On the other hand, the stakeholdersÕ practices and experiences in their
daily life are highlighted, not only focusing on their world as ‘‘thought,’’ but
also as ‘‘lived.’’ For doing so, qualitative research techniques were used, by
means of group and individual in-depth interviews and participant observation, which also included the attendance at workshops and local and
international conferences. Interviews targeted two groups of stakeholders.
The first group included 22 farmers (eight farmers sowing both GM and
conventional maize, nine cultivating conventional maize, and eight organic
farmers), eight technicians or managers of cooperatives in the maize sector
and two purchasing managers for starch and glucose companies, which
establish their own segregation systems in order to be provided with nonGM maize. The second group was composed of stakeholders related to the
debate on coexistence at the policy level. It included 19 semi-structured and
three in-depth interviews. Stakeholders were selected among politicians and
public administrators, representatives from agricultural unions, consumersÕ
organizations, environmental and development NGOs, biotechnologists and
experts on the organic agriculture sector. Thirty-one of the interviews were
recorded (with audio or video), transcribed and sent back to participants for
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COEXISTENCE OF PLANTS AND COEXISTENCE OF FARMERS
441
review. The rest, 23, were recorded with field notes, as the informants did
not wish to be audio recorded. All informants were interviewed in their
workplace or house, which included visits to the farmersÕ fields and cooperatives. The objective was to contextualize the research activities while
providing a comfortable environment for those participating in the interviews (Kvale, 1996).
Research involved an interactive play between the qualitative database
and the background theory. A literature review compiled European Commission official press releases and communications, legislative documents,
papers, and technical reports as well as other types of documents (press
releases, statements, pamphlets, and web pages) produced by other stakeholders. Other secondary sources have included results of different research
projects, scientific meetings, and round tables conducted at the European
and national level.
3.
THE MAIZE SECTOR IN CATALONIA AND ARAGON
In spite of the de facto moratoria in other European countries, introduction
of GM maize in Spain started in 1998. The available GM varieties have
grown from the initial 16 to 61 in 2007. All the current varieties derive from
the GM maize event Mon810 modified to be resistant to the corn borer. The
rate of farmersÕ adoption and hectares under GM maize cultivation have
arisen according to this increasing number of registered GM maize varieties,
although with a very heterogeneous distribution. Data from the Ministry of
Agriculture, extrapolated from the seed companies sales, report 75,000 ha of
GM maize in 2007 (MAPA, 2007), 14.5% of the total grain maize area.
Around 85% of the maize in Spain is used for feed production (Demont
and Tollens, 2004). With an overall production of 5 million tones of maize,
Spain also imports around 2 million tones of Brazilian, USA, and Argentinean maize, presumed to largely be GM maize (European Commission,
2005). Moreover, standard feed contains around 20% of soy, 98.7% GM
following the estimates of the Ministry of Agriculture. As a consequence,
almost all the manufactured feed in Spain is labeled as containing GMOs
(Ortega, 2006).
This study was undertaken in Catalonia and Aragon, the areas with the
highest concentration of GM maize adoption. This percentage was 55% and
42% in 2006, respectively (Ortega, 2006). In both regions, maize production
and the fabrication of feed and fodder are key agricultural activities, mainly
related to the meat industry (Badı́a Roig et al., 2001). Although the area
allocated to crops remains stable, the number of holdings is decreasing due
to land concentration. Despite this, the average size of farms remains small
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R. BINIMELIS
(5.45 ha in Catalonia, while in Aragon the average is 7 ha in the case of
grain and 30 ha for forage maize) and it is highly fragmented (IAEST,
2007). Prices received by maize farmers have been constant or slightly
decreasing during the last 15 years (around 0.13 e/kg) (MAPA, 2007).
There is no price differentiation between GM and conventional maize. In the
case of organic maize, it is sold by organic farmers at a higher price, 0.21 e/kg
(interviews with organic farmers).
The maize production process is integrated in cereal cooperatives, which
cover the entire production chain. This vertical integration often includes
also the meat production (e.g., in the pig sector). The farmer – called
‘‘integrator’’– then becomes like a wage-earning worker (Langreo Navarro
and González del Barrio, 2007). Cooperatives sell the inputs (seeds, fertilizers, herbicides) and lease the machinery to the farmers and process (e.g.,
drying) and sell the product. Often they also grant credits to the farmers
during the season, which are then subtracted from the money received after
the grain is dried in the cooperative (interviews with cooperative managers).
Through this process, the manager or technician of the cooperative, who
also provides the technical advice, becomes a key actor in the introduction
of new technologies at the local level. This structure implies the concentration of infrastructures, which also makes it difficult and expensive to
segregate GM production from organic and conventional during the production chain. There are no specific silos for organic maize while only a
minority of the cooperatives in the region restrict the use of GMOs.
At the same time, organic agriculture is also in expansion, increasing in
the number of producers, manufacturers, and hectares (926,400 ha were
reported in 2006 by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture). Most of the
production is exported to other European countries. There are no official
data on the surface planted with organic maize. However, a frequently used
approximation was made by Brookes and Barfoot (2003), who estimated the
area of organic maize in Spain to 1,000 ha. In 2002, the area sown with
organic maize in Catalonia and Aragon was 90 and 120 ha, respectively.
This area has not grown, for reasons explained in this paper.
4.
LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS FOR COEXISTENCE
Up to four preliminary documents on the implementation of coexistence
have been released by the Spanish administrations since 2004. However,
they have been highly contested by agrarian and environmental organizations. No agreement has been reached so far. Instead, some guidelines on
good practices for cultivating GM maize have been promoted by the seed
producers association (APROSE, 2006). In parallel, Catalonia, one of the
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COEXISTENCE OF PLANTS AND COEXISTENCE OF FARMERS
443
Spanish regions with a high degree of autonomy, is developing its own
coexistence legislation, although the proposals have yet to be approved.
Together with the call to regulate coexistence, the Catalan Parliament (2004)
urged the creation of a ‘‘GMO-free’’ quality trademark, but neither has been
implemented.
While in some European countries, participatory processes were held
before GM crops introduction (Gaskell et al., 2003; Schläpfer, 2007), in
Spain the situation was different, and public participation was almost nonexistent during their sow in the fields. This could be grounded in the low
level of public awareness in relation to environmental problems in Spain, a
short tradition of participation and a high scientific and technical optimism
(Todt, 1999). However, the discussion has been opened within the framework of negotiations on coexistence legislations. This development was
mainly due to environmentalists, farmer associations, and activist groups,
with a highly confronting discourse. It seems fair to say that it has been
difficult to establish a real, transparent dialogue between the stakeholders.
5.
HOW IS COEXISTENCE CONCEIVED AND IMPLEMENTED?
In this section, the conceptualization and implementation of the coexistence
framework is analyzed for the case of Catalonia and Aragon. I shall first
discuss how the concept of coexistence is conceived by different stakeholders. This is connected to a dissimilar assessment of the potential impacts that
should be incorporated in the framework. Following this, the proposed
technical measures for coexistence and for the liability and redress scheme
are analyzed in terms of feasibility and implications.
5.1.
The Concept of Coexistence
The analysis of the existing approaches for coexistence in the case study
reveals two conflicting rationales. One group of actors attach themselves to
the CommissionsÕ definition of coexistence, as the farmersÕ right to choose
the type of crop production (European Commission, 2003a; 2003b). A clear
distinction is made between the economic aspects of coexistence and the
environmental and health aspects, assuming the latter to be sufficiently
addressed by Directive 2001/18/EC. Coexistence is framed as the requirement of some economic agents for maintaining the economic added value of
their production (AGPME and EFEagro, 2006). The object of the discussion is then how to design the science-based technical measures to minimize
the derived costs of segregation in a proportionate manner at the farm level.
For another group of stakeholders, the concept of coexistence was
introduced to force the end of the moratoria, following the exigencies of the
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R. BINIMELIS
World Trade Organization. This was done by developing a series of technical
measures to deal with the introduction of GMOs as a matter of fact, without a
discussion of the underlying purpose and bypassing the political conflicts
around it. This perspective, shifting the focus from farmersÕ right to choose
to consumersÕ rights (e.g., European Parliament, 2003), challenges the
compatibility of GM with organic agricultural systems and promotes, for
instance, the creation of European GMO-free zones or regions. Delimitations
between economic, social, environmental, safety, and ethical aspects are
blurred. As it will be discussed in the next section, different conceptions of
biotechnology and its implications lie behind the two described frames.
5.2.
What is at Stake? The Notion of Genetic Contamination
The opponents of GM technology consider so-called genetic contamination
as a major threat to organic agricultural systems and biodiversity. ‘‘Contamination’’ here refers to the unwanted process that transgenes from GM
crops move to other organisms and become established in natural or agricultural ecosystems (McAfee, 2003; Walters, 2004, Binimelis, 2005; Verhoog, 2007). It is argued that this admixture has agronomic, environmental,
and socio-economic implications, raising concerns for food safety, consumersÕ rights or the integrity of organic and conventional agriculture and
the seed system. Appealing to the irreversibility of the process, the technology is described as involving a high level of uncertainty.
Although the concept can be applied to admixtures both with organic
and conventional crops, the discussion is more vivid regarding organic
agriculture, as most organic farmers and consumers reject the presence of
GM traces in organic products. There are several reasons behind this. As
stated by organic farmers, for many of them, organic agriculture is not only
a way of producing, but a way of living, in contrast to intensive agriculture.
GM technology is judged as uncertain, and a step forward in the intensification of the agricultural industrial model to the detriment of small farmers
and the local control of resources. For instance, an organic farmer in the
north of Catalonia decided to burn his harvest after it was found to contain
GMOs, refusing to place in the market a product that he considered risky
and damaging to local agriculture (organic maize farmer, interview).
Another central point of the discussion has been the role played by GMOs
in the erosion of agrobiodiversity, especially linked with the non-hybrid
varieties. The issue became essential after GM contamination was found in
the red-colored non-hybrid variety ‘‘embrilla,’’ which had been conserved by
an organic farmer in Aragon for 15 years, after it had almost disappeared
(Assemblea Pagesa et al., 2006). In Catalonia, contamination was also
found in the variety ‘‘queixal’’ in the private Center of Biodiversity
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COEXISTENCE OF PLANTS AND COEXISTENCE OF FARMERS
445
Conservation ‘‘Esporus.’’ Moreover, it is argued that the right of organic
agriculture to remain GMO-free and the right of organic consumers to
choose are seriously compromised. Traceability and labeling are judged as
impracticable as GMO contamination grows. To sum up, the arguments are
make explicit by the following statement from an interview with an organic
farmer: ‘‘Why do we need to have GMOs if this technology creates uncertainties, contamination, homogenizes agrarian cultures, the consequences
concerning health effects are not clear enough and there are huge questions
related to ethical issues? What do we need them for? If there is a food crisis,
why not opt for more sustainable approaches?’’
These arguments confront the discourse of proponents of GMOs, who
argue that GMOs do not differ substantially from conventional varieties
and, as GM crops undergo a risk assessment process, they have been proven
to be even safer than the conventional varieties. There is also a distinction
between issues evaluated by the risk assessment process (mainly environmental, human, and animal health) and those aspects that relate to social or
ethical concerns, which remain outside the sphere of the decision-making.
From that point of view, the concept of contamination should be rejected as
tendentious, implying that GMOs are inferior. Indeed, the potential contribution of GMOs to sustainability is highlighted: ‘‘the problem with organic
agriculture, its direct confrontation with the biotechnological one is its own
positioning for not accepting genetic modifications as valid for its production.
However, to have a plant resistant to insects which in the future could be
capable of not needing water for irrigation would be the paradigm of organic
agriculture’’ (biotech company representative, interview). The argument of
biodiversity erosion is also challenged: ‘‘We are opening the possibility of
biodiversity, we are putting in the hands of farmers many more varieties... the
only thing we are doing is, in some varieties, to add resistance to an organism
that can destroy them directly. Therefore, the discourse ‘‘with the GMOs we
are diminishing the biodiversity’’ is very difficult to explain to us, as we are
seeing it, more varieties are grown all the time’’ (biotech company representative). The argument of the consumerÕs right to choose is also used for
justifying the introduction of GMOs.
5.3.
Technical Measures for Coexistence
These divergent approaches to coexistence have emerged throughout the
discussion of the technical measures for ensuring it. Such measures were
meant by the EC to be cost-effective and proportionate (European Commission, 2003b), but disagreement exists on what the objective is. While for
one group the proposed technical measures would mean a disproportionate
burden for GMOs, the other group of stakeholders faced a dilemma:
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R. BINIMELIS
whereas these measures are seen as the ultimate instrument for imposing a
non desired agricultural model, the opposition to the coexistence measures
leads to a complete lack of regulation of the situation. Accordingly, strategies varied from direct opposition to the coexistence concept, to the request
for the strictest measures possible.
Following Regulation (EC) no. 1830/2003, a product has to be labeled as
genetically modified if the GM content, assumed to be fortuitous, exceeds
0.9% in any of its ingredients. This practical threshold is established as a
convention, so that no economic loss should be suffered by the organic or
conventional farmer in case of an accidental admixture. The thresholds for
the presence of GM material in seeds have not been established. The
labeling norm is seen by proponents of biotechnology and conventional
farmers and technicians as a safety buffer to ensure coexistence and minimize
derived economic costs. On the contrary, organic farmers and consumers in
Spain defend the integrity of organic products as 100% GMO-free – or below
the detection level – for the final consumer, even the Council of Agriculture
Ministers has recently voted for allowing the same adventitious threshold in
organic than conventional products (0.9%) (European Commission, 2007).
In that sense, it is stated that if the norms for ensuring coexistence are
designed at aiming to achieve a 0.9% threshold, this will become not an
accidental threshold but a normal one. There is also a questioning of the
cost and significance of this threshold. If GMOs are framed as a technology
with uncertain outcomes, what is the difference between 0.9% and 1 or
0.8%?
This discussion links with the debate on the objective of the technical
measures. Is it to procure an admixture as low as possible? Or is it to
achieve a level that reduces economic costs of admixture? Although the
admixture can be produced at the different steps of the production chain
(European Commission, 2001), and the draft legislation considers a series
of measures (e.g., crop planning or pollen traps) in this paper I will focus
on the debate on isolation distances, as they have received most attention.
Only one of the informants, a farmer who grows GMOs, negated the
possibility of pollen transfer between GM and conventional and organic
fields. All the rest accept that this transfer is produced in natural conditions as a matter of fact.
The proposed legislation for coexistence in Spain has gone through the
incorporation of various different isolation distances for the case of maize.
While in the first drafts, isolation distances were settled at 25 m aiming at
not exceeding 0.9% of admixture, social opposition provoked the extension
of the prescriptive distances up to 50 m in the last proposal in Catalonia.
Meanwhile, the draft legislation for coexistence from the Spanish government suggested the isolation distance at 200 m. However, this is still disliked
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447
by many of the stakeholders. As stated above, some push for returning to
smaller isolation distances. On the other side, the opponents of GMOs
approve of the increased distances, although they still believe them to be
insufficient, especially if the aim is to minimize admixture. Proposals range
from 500–800 m (main agrarian union) to km (organic farmers and technicians following the rules for plant breeding). Consistent with the two
positions, a literature review reveals that recommended isolation distances
for maize vary from 25 m up to 10 km, depending on the author and the
final admixture threshold permitted (Barth et al., 2002; Müller, 2003; Devos
et al., 2005; Messeguer et al., 2006; van de Wiel and Lotz, 2006; Bannert
and Stamp, 2007).
The feasibility of implementing isolation distances in the regions, where
the size of the plots is small, is also discussed by stakeholders, especially in
Catalonia. In this respect, some of the informants see the creation of either
GM or conventional and organic homogeneous regions as the only way
for observing the rule. This would mean that farmers at a regional scale
would need to agree and decide jointly the type of agriculture to be
developed, creating a buffer zone around the area to prevent contamination [the strategy is also known as ‘‘landscape clubs’’ (Furtan et al., 2007)].
This is to some extent already happening, since, for instance, starch and
glucose companies only buy maize in large areas, often outside the two
studied regions, where farmers agree to not using GMOs. These voluntary
agreements are, in fact, recommended by the EC guidelines on coexistence.
The implications of these agreements, which are also necessary for other
proposed measures such as crop planning to avoid flowering coincidence
or segregation in later steps of production, will be discussed in the next
section.
5.4.
The Social Dimensions of Liability
Several challenges arise from a forensic view of liability in case admixture
takes place, from the quantification of costs and damages to the practical
aspects for claiming compensation. In this section, I will analyze the
implications of the liability frame regarded in the coexistence proposals.
As discussed above, the coexistence project is constrained within the
economic aspects derived from the admixture of GM and non-GM crops. In
that sense, only economic damages are addressed by the framework, especially focusing on the variations in economic profit due to the impact of
labeling obligation. Other socio-economic non-marketable goods, more
difficult to quantify or incommensurable, such as the loss of trust among
consumers [as proposed by the European Parliament (2003)] or the
admixture of GM maize with a local variety, are not included. By doing so,
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R. BINIMELIS
liability is focused on the individual economic aspects of the issue, while
individual and collective concerns at a social and environmental level are left
aside.1
The trend toward individualization of the liability and redress scheme is
also promoted by the coexistence framework regarding the resolution of
disputes. In Spain, for instance, individual affected farmers suing for compensation would be obliged to identify the farmer responsible for the contamination and to prove their culpability and the resulting damage,
following civil law. Actually, when the first cases of unwanted admixture
were reported, it was seen that the whole process was hampered by technical
difficulties. Pollen dispersal declines exponentially with distance from
source, but often has long ‘‘tails’’ showing that low levels of pollen can
disperse over long distances, which might be of concern in case of zero
tolerance for organic growers.
Concentration of pollen is then a function of distance but dispersal is not
uniform. As the figure depends on the size of the field, measurement of
admixture has been heavily contested, especially in the absence of a consensus sampling protocol. Other technical difficulties for the quantification
of the content of GM material in on-farm samples cannot be disregarded
(Devos et al., 2005). The point can be clearly illustrated by the case that
occurred in 2006 in the north of Catalonia, in which an organic maize was
found to have up to 12.6% of GM material. This first analysis, performed
by the organic production certification body was then contrasted by two
other analyses by the Catalan agriculture department and a farmersÕ union
resulting in 0.9% and 6%, respectively (public administrator, interview). In
view of such disparate results, some stakeholders have accused the farmer of
setting up a farce (biotechnologist, interview). Other cases resulted in
positive or negative results depending on the sampling and/or the analytical
method. The small size of the farms brings along other technical constraints,
as it is not easy to establish direct causality, especially if the rate of GM
adoption is high in a region. As a consequence, the affected farmers would
have to sue all the neighbors who are potentially able to cause the admixture. A prerequisite for claiming this causality is that farmers, who do not
grow GMOs, have at their disposal the information on where GM crops are
sown. Although legally since 2006 this information must be stated when
filling the CAP declaration, the information is not publicly available. In case
1
The European Environmental Liability Directive (2004/35/CE), includes remediation at the
polluterÕs expense for environmental and biodiversity damage arising from GMOs releases.
However, it has several limitations for the application to cases of admixture between GM and
non-GM crops. Activities that were not considered harmful when released or have been
authorized are exempt from liability (Khoury and Smyth, 2007; Rodgers, 2007).
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449
the neighbors have observed the prescribed measures, it is not clear who will
bear the responsibility.
On the other hand, fieldwork has highlighted that social conditions can
become critical in order to establish working liability frameworks. For analyzing that aspect, it is important to understand the conditions in which the
technology has been introduced and how it has been done. Most interviewed
stakeholders agree when listing the reasons behind the introduction of GMOs
in Spain, in spite of the de facto moratoria operating in the other European
countries. The main explanation is the political alliance of the former rightwing Aznar government (1996–2003) with the neoliberal governments in the
United States and United Kingdom by the time that GMOs were first introduced. Other related explanations are the permissive character of the Spanish
administration, the power of agribusiness companies, which in fact are in
charge of rural extension, and a low environmental awareness compared to
other European countries, which impeded a social debate on the issue.
In regard to the adoption of GMOs, farmers growing them highlight the
advantages of this technology for the farm management. It is in a way
compared to having insurance, as the farmer can be sure that less grain will
be left in the field because the borer will not break or bend the plants.
Moreover, most of the stakeholders point out big pressures from the seed
companies to introduce and promote GMOs. Public support for rural
technological transfer has been diminished in recent years, leaving most of
the load to private companies. Agribusiness companies are, in fact, either
directly or indirectly through the cooperative technicians, recognized as the
leaders of rural extension.
This social pressure for introducing biotechnology, however, does not
only come from the companies. Modernization is considered a driver for
economic progress and being an entrepreneur is a shared social value. It can
be illustrated by a statement from a farmer growing GMOs, who was
initially reluctant to do it: ‘‘In the town most of the people say good things
[about GMOS], they do not speak badly, on the contrary. They said I was
stupid for not planting GMOs in the last two years.’’ This preference towards
modernization and technification was also shared by a cooperative technician, when explaining the change in the use of GM varieties: ‘‘Pioneer is now
selling the most because the Syngenta gene is old and people always want the
latest [technology].’’
The tension between the productivist agricultural model and a more
environmental farming practice is framed as a traditional confrontation
between ecologists and farmers in Spain, which remains and is more polarized
in areas with intensive farming, as in the area of study. A similar conclusion
was reached by Hoggart and Paniagua (2001), who have documented the
resistance towards a more environmentally friendly agriculture in Spain in
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R. BINIMELIS
favor of intensification, backed by a lack of agro-environmental legislation
until recently (Paniagua, 2001). Organic farming is a locally marginalized
agriculture. In that sense, lack of social support becomes the main obstacle for
young farmers who want to practice organic agriculture, especially those
coming from a rural background (interviews with organic farmers). Organic
farming is, for some farmers, a shameful practice, as can be glimpsed in the
statement made by a farmer growing conventional maize when explaining his
intentions to plant organic maize: ‘‘I will sow organic maize next year but in a
hidden plot where nobody sees me, otherwise they will laugh at me’’ (interview).
Another illustrative example links with the perception of nature and ecosystem functioning and the role played by the farmer. During the field visits,
farmers growing GMOs repeatedly referred to the ones growing organic as
careless, dirty, and untidy because weeds can easily be seen in their fields.
A completely different position is held by organic farmers, who perceive the
use of synthetic herbicides as highly polluting, and, therefore, as a negligent
practice.
This situation and the way in which GM technology is introduced are
critical elements shaping the cases of disagreements among farmers. On the
one hand, disagreement exists in regard to the responsibilities of farmers
sowing GMOs. These are presented as relying on the technicians and on a
product that has been authorized. On the other hand, the liability scheme is
perceived as transferring the problem to the organic farmers. As a result,
many farmers are reluctant to publicly report cases of contamination in a
context where there is a need for social cohesion, as in small villages. One
organic farmer said: ‘‘as a consequence of social pressure, when farmers suffer
contamination, they do not want to say so. Last year there were 4 contamination cases and 2 made it public but 2 did not. For fear of confronting the
people in the town... so they have to assume the economic cost, the environmental cost, and the cost of losing the organic certification but they do not say
so’’ (interview). Consequently, data on admixture cases are not systematically registered, although the organic certification is withdrawn in these
cases. This was the situation in Aragon in 2004, when all the analyzed
samples (representing around 200 ha) gave a positive result for presence of
GMOs. Moreover, many organic farmers growing maize have already
shifted the crop as they wish to avoid direct confrontations with their
neighbors: ‘‘I would never do this [bring a neighbor into court]. My neighbor
is not my enemy. He is my colleague, from the school, we did communion
together (...) We are a small community and we have a community life. He is
my friend. I cannot say anything. He is trying to survive and he does what he
can. I prefer to give up with agriculture than having bad relations’’ (interview).
As a result, from 2004 (when the first analyses were done) to 2007, the
area devoted to organic maize was reduced by 75% in Aragon (organic
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451
certification body representative, interview). For the case of Catalonia, the
surface decreased by 5% from 2002 to 2005 (Morán, 2006). The trend was
confirmed by the organic certification body for the following years. Informants within the organic sector have corroborated the difficulty in obtaining
local organic maize. In spite of this, some other stakeholders stated that no
problem has been observed after 8 years of GM agriculture (AGPME and
EFEagro, 2006).2
6.
DISCUSSION
The conflicts that have arisen from agricultural biotechnology in Europe can
be seen as a struggle between confronting frames of interpretation. Against
this background, the coexistence concept was introduced as a compromise
solution to handle the introduction of GMOs in Europe by way of the
implementation of technical measures based on purported scientific criteria
(European Commission, 2003b). In the case of Spain, it is worth noting that
this aspect was emphasized in the Catalan proposals as ‘‘strictly scientific
criteria.’’ By doing so, the problem is demarked as a technological fix, in
which the ethical, social, political, and environmental aspects are reduced to
a quantitative ‘‘objective’’ regulatory setting, which can be managed without
the participation of those primarily affected. However, quantification is also
a form of making decisions (Porter, 1995). Moreover, the mainstream frame
excludes other rationales and criteria, such as food quality, farmer autonomy, or the integrity of organic agriculture (Heller, 2002) that cannot be
easily quantified. The specific coexistence proposals in Spain are thus
favoring some agendas over others, confirming suspicions in the context of
other European countries by Levidow and Boschert (2007). Moreover, science is presented as an autonomous entity of society, objective and neutral,
but also as a homogeneous body. These concepts have been widely discussed
for the case of agricultural biotechnology, covering issues such as the layexpert divide in the perception and management of risks (Wynne, 2001), the
failure of the science-based risk-assessment procedure to incorporate societal
concerns (Carr and Levidow, 2000; McAfee, 2003; Sarewitz, 2004) and the
legitimacy of science-based regulations (Levidow and Marris, 2001). A low
consensus on the scientific issues and the analytical methods to be applied is
also found among scientists (Busch et al., 2004; Myhr, 2005), depending for
instance on their work context and background (Kvakkestad et al., 2007).
2
Isabel Garcı́a Tejerina, the former Agriculture General Secretary, during the presentation
of the National Commission of Biovigilance, declared that ‘‘after 6 years of real experience,
there has not been any case of contamination’’ (EFEAgro, 2004), although some official cases
had been already published and discussed in the sessions of the National Biosafety Commission
(2002), as it is reflected in its proceedings.
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The case study shows that these concerns are handled as if they were a
matter of private choice, which can be solved (compensated) by market
mechanisms. In this case on the one hand, the wider debate on the
acceptability or necessity of GMOs is dumped on the individual sphere as if
farmers are in charge of deciding what they want to cultivate (Devos et al.,
2008). On the other hand, liability based on civil law is focused on monetary
compensation, it supports the individualization of the problem and leaving
aside social and environmental conditions and effects (McLeod-Kilmurray,
2007). As it has been shown by the fieldwork, it seems that previously
unsolved framing conflicts are pervasive in the coexistence concept, while
new ones are enhanced. Considerations of the social conditions in which the
technology and the management measures are implemented, and to what
degree they will be observed, were not taken into account. Problems in
establishing causation and dispute-solving mechanisms have resulted in the
promotion of a biotechnological agriculture over an organic one.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Roger Strand, Fern Wickson, and Kamilla Kjølberg at the
Centre for the Study of the Sciences and the Humanities (SVT) in Bergen,
Iliana Monterroso at FLACSO-Guatemala, and Joan Martı́nez Alier and
Nicolas Kosoy at the Autonomous University of Barcelona for their helpful comments on a previous version of this article. The Research Council
of Norway and the FP6 project ALARM (GOCECT-2003-506675) have
partially funded this research. I am particularly grateful to all the stakeholders who actively collaborated in the research process.
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Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA)
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08193 Barcelona, Spain
E-mail: [email protected]
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Article 3:
Catalan agriculture and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) –
An application of DPSIR model
Accepted for publication in Ecological Economics
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Catalan agriculture and genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
- An application of DPSIR model
Binimelis, R.*, Monterroso, I. and Rodríguez-Labajos, B.
Institute of Environmental Science and Technology – Autonomous University of Barcelona
*Corresponing author: [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Although there is a strong controversy regarding the introduction and commercialisation of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in Europe, GM maize has been sown in Spain since
1998. Stakeholders’ positions on the role that GMOs play in trends of the state of agriculture and
environment in Catalonia are analysed. The application of the Driving forces –Pressures – State –
Impact – Responses (DPSIR) framework in this case study highlights its potential for organising
and structuring information. However, the model can be ambiguous when used as an analytical
tool in value-laden complex situations. Thus GM agriculture is sometimes seen as a pressure on
the agro-environment and sometimes as a modernising response to an economic and
environmental crisis. A redefinition of the DPSIR categories is proposed, aiming to reflect on
these situations by better acknowledging different legitimate perspectives and narratives. This is
done, on the one hand, by allowing alternative descriptions of causal chains and, on the other
hand, by taking into consideration social and political aspects besides the relationship between
economics and environmental spheres.
Keywords: Catalonia, DPSIR, genetic “contamination”, GMO coexistence, maize, stakeholders.
1. Introduction
Introduction and commercialisation of GMOs have generated huge controversy in Europe. On the
one hand, proponents claim far-reaching societal benefits of GMOs and see in this technology
the key for improving competitiveness and promoting economic growth (European Commission,
2002) or yielding agri-environmental benefits, specially for farmers (see e.g. Carpenter et al.,
2002). On the other hand, opponents challenge the potential benefits and rise questions on the
purposes and uncertainties related to the environmental and social impacts of this technology, as
well as their social distribution (Altieri, 2005; Carr and Levidow, 2000; Schubert, 2002).
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Despite this controversy in Europe, GM maize has been widely cultivated in Spain since 1998. Bt
maize is the only GM crop with a commercial licence in the EU. It is grown in Spain (75.000 ha),
particularly in Aragon and Catalonia, and in very small amounts in other European countries. In
the Catalan province of Lleida GM maize represents more than 60% of the total maize surface. At
the same time, the organic agriculture sector is also growing in importance (CCPAE, 2005),
except for maize (Binimelis, 2008).
Introduction of agricultural GMOs has not been accompanied by public deliberation in Spain. Just
recently, the discussion on the coexistence between GM crops and organic and conventional
agriculture has raised issues on the current and future state of the agricultural sector in Catalonia
and on the technical measures to be applied for avoiding unwanted presence of GM material in
the conventional and organic production. This debate has been characterised by difficulties
between the different stakeholders (public administration, conventional and organic farmers,
farmers growing GM crops, environmental groups, business representatives) to establish a
dialogue on how issues can be framed and what the concerns to take into account are (Binimelis,
2008). The lack of transparency and understanding of each others’ positions contributes to the
conflict.
The DPSIR model has been used by the European Environment Agency (EEA) and EUROSTAT
as a communication tool to structure information about the interactions between society and the
environment. In particular, it has been widely applied for organising systems of indicators and
statistics, in relation to a policy aim. It is grounded in the assumption of the existence of causal
relationships between the different components of the system: the Driving Forces, i.e. the
underlying social and economic developments, induce Pressures on the environment and, as a
consequence, the State changes. These changes in the condition of the environment can have
Impacts on humans or the environment, which may cause societal Responses. For its simplicity,
it is widely emphasized as an interdisciplinary communication tool between researchers and also
between researchers and policy makers and stakeholders (see e.g. Gabrielsen and Bosch,
2003).
This potential, however, has recently been questioned (e.g. Maxim (this issue); Svarstad et al
(2007)), arguing that the DPSIR framework has deficits as a tool for good communication due to
its incapability to deal with multiple perspectives and definitions. For instance, in Svarstad et al.
(2007), attention is drawn to the “strong realist view on knowledge behind the DPSIR”, implying
that the understandings of the environmental issues are narrowly presented as scientific truths,
omitting different understandings of controversial issues. Finally, it is argued for the need to
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critically apply the DPSIR framework in specific cases, establishing a methodology that helps to
incorporate perspectives and definitions of the problem stated by different stakeholders.
The aim of this paper is to critically apply the DPSIR model to the assessment of the agrienvironmental situation in Catalonia, with special emphasis on the role played by GMOs. This is
done through the implementation of the DPSIR definition developed within the ALARM project
(see Maxim et al. (this issue)1). The application of the DPSIR model in this case, on the one hand
helps in organising the information and, on the other, makes visible the differences in positions
among stakeholders. It allows discussing the application of DPSIR schemes under conditions of
uncertainty, in which a variety of narratives are present.
GM and organic agriculture as indicators – A literature review
A literature review discloses different approaches when considering GMO-based agricultural
systems and organic agriculture within the DPSIR scheme. They differ both in the definition of the
DPSIR categories themselves and the interpretation its significance in relation to the objective of
the study. For a complete review of the use of indicators for assessing the role played by GMOs
in the environment and agriculture, see Brauner et al. (2002).
The European Environment Agency (EEA) was initially including, in its reporting on the state of
environment, the area planted with GMOs as an indicator (AGRI12). Although it was not formally
classified in the DPSIR system, this indicator was related to structural, technological and
management changes in the agricultural sector, which are associated to driving forces (Petersen,
2003). Use of GMOs has been also included as a driving force indicator by other authors. Hansen
et al. (2002) classify it as a driving force indicator in their analysis and assessment of food safety
using the DPSIR scheme. Notice that Hansen et al. (2002) target food safety while the purpose of
EEA indicator scheme is to assess the state of the European environment. The demarcation of
the object of study implies, in this case, the limitation of driving forces to three types of processes:
the use of determinate compounds such as GMOs or the application of N; the use of technology
and the structural developments of agricultural production, processing and marketing.
Other reports conceive the introduction of GMOs as a pressure. For instance, the OECD included
“the introduction of new genetic material and species” as an environmental pressure indicator
related to the theme “biodiversity and landscape” in its first "Core Set of Indicators for
Environmental Performance Reviews" (OECD (1993) quoted in Brauner et al. (2002)). Other
cases are the national environmental indicators in Italy, South Africa or Australia. This is
1
For other examples of the implementation of these definitions to specific case studies, see Rodriguez-Labajos et
al; Kuldna et al; and Omann et al. (in this issue). (This article will be published as part of a special issue).
73
consistent with the strict biosafety schemes (which include GMOs and invasive species)
implemented by these countries. For instance, in Italy the issue is introduced through counting
the area devoted to experimenting with GMOs in agriculture, considered as a pressure indicator
(Mammoliti Mochet et al., 2003). In the case of South Africa, the indicator –distribution and
abundance of GMOs invading natural systems- relates GMOs to their invasive potential.
However, it is included as a dormant indicator, as it is considered that there is lack of data or
knowledge in order to calculate it accurately (Le Maitre et al., 2002). Pressures are defined in the
report as processes exerted on resources and ecosystems as a result of human activities (i.e.
driving forces), including consumption and waste generation patterns and trends. For Australia,
different types of indicators are proposed in relation with GMOs. Distribution and abundance of
GMOs is included as a pressure indicator while control of exotic, alien and GMOs is also
incorporated as response indicator (Saunders et al., 1998). Pressure is defined in this work as the
human activities that affect the environment (note that the category “driving forces” was not
included in the Australian report) while responses are characterized as the number of objectives
settled and actions taken by humans to address perceived environmental problems or potential
problems. Similarly, the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, on its turn,
elaborated a series of indicators for sustainable development in line with the Agenda 21 process.
The environmental sound management of biotechnology included both R&D expenditure on
biotechnology and the existence of national biosafety regulations as response indicators under
the D-S-R scheme.
Organic agriculture is also a relevant subject in this discussion. The area used for organic farming
is included in the core set of indicators of the EEA. This is classified as a response indicator
following the DPSIR model (EEA, 2005a). In the working definition of organic agriculture the
contraposition of the use of GMOs to the organic production system “which puts a strong
emphasis on environmental protection and animal welfare by reducing or eliminating the use of
GMOs and synthetic chemical inputs” is explicitly mentioned (EEA, 2005b). Meanwhile, in the
analysis done by Zalidis et al. (2004) to assess EU agri-environmental measures effectiveness,
area planted with organic agriculture is included as an indicator of the main driving force, which in
this case is agriculture.
This article is organised as follows. The next section characterises the Catalan maize sector and
the current state of GMOs crops and organic farming. Then, the methodology of this case study is
explained. The fourth section presents and discusses main results of the paper by organising the
information on the agro-environmental stakeholders’ assessment following the DPSIR scheme.
The final section summarizes the findings and examines their implications on the present case
study for policy-making.
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2. The Catalan maize sector
This paper analyses the agri-environmental state of Catalan agriculture focusing on the role
exerted by GMOs. This case study takes place in one of the European areas with more
percentage of GMOs sown at a commercial scale. Its relevance is rooted in the fact that this
situation has generated, on the one hand, an opportunity to reflect on what agricultural system is
desired and what are the implications for biodiversity while, on the other hand, this deliberation
has also allowed rethinking the scientific model and its relation to policy-making (science-policy
interfaces). The notion of the GMOs themselves as threats (e.g. by conceiving them as biological
invasions (Ewel et al., 1999; McNeely, 2001; Williamson, 1999)) or as positive responses to
biodiversity loss will be here placed in the core of the discussion.
In Spain the introduction of GM maize took place in 1998, when five varieties with the
modification Bt-176 and eleven of Mon810 were placed in the Register for Commercial Varieties.
Both modifications were developed for insect resistance (especially targeting the European and
Mediterranean corn borers: Ostrinia nubilalis and Sesamia nonagrioides). Since then, the number
of available varieties has increased up to 61 in 2007. Farmers’ acceptance of GM maize has
been mixed in Spain. The GM surface represents about 10% of the total area sown with maize in
2004 (Ministry of Agriculture, 2004a). The highest concentration of GM maize is in the North-East
of Spain (Aragon and Catalonia).
Maize production is an important agricultural activity in Catalonia, mostly related to the meat
industry. It is especially concentrated in the province of Lleida, a leading European region
involved in livestock raising. With more than 2.5 million pigs, it heads Spanish production on feed
and fodder with 27,000 hectares cultivated with maize –of which around 15,000 were GM maize
in 2006 (DARP, 2006). The area concentrates most of the agrarian activity in Catalonia,
representing 12.1% of the employed population, while this percentage is only 2.3% for the whole
region. However, the number of agrarian farms is diminishing, favouring land concentration
(IDESCAT, 2003). Moreover, Spain imports maize from the largest GM maize producers,
Argentina, Brasil and USA (Ministry of Agriculture, 2004b). These imports are presumed to have
a high content of GMOs (European Commission, 2005). The biotech sector is also growing in
importance in Catalonia. About one hundred biotechnological companies are located in
Catalonia. Moreover, the project to develop a “Catalan Bioregion” intends to favour the creation of
60 biotechnology companies, with over 1,500 direct employments by year 2010 (ASEBIO, 2005).
It should be noted that most of them are engaged in biomedicine. Still, it must be acknowledged
75
that their presence could perhaps contribute to create an economic and political climate in favour
of biotechnology in general.
Regarding the area sown with organic maize in Spain, there are limited data available. The
Spanish Ministry of Agriculture has only published the figure for the total amount of cereals and
legumes: 100,860 ha in 2003 (Ministry of Agriculture, 2004c). However, Brookes and Barfoot
(2002) estimated the area of organic maize in Spain to be about 1,000 has. Finally, the use of
non-hybrid maize varieties supposes around 16% of the total maize seeds in Spain (no data for
Catalonia) (Ministry of Agriculture, 2004b).
3. Methodology of the case study
Research included a review of the official information available (including European
Commission’s press releases and communications, legislative documents and technical reports)
as well as documents produced by other stakeholders. The second part of the study is based on
field research in the province of Lleida, which started in 2002. Its aim is to consider stakeholders’
viewpoints at the local level. To collect this information, qualitative techniques including
workshops, group and individual in-depth interviews, as well as participant observation are used.
Up to the end of 2006, 21 farmers, 6 managers of agricultural cooperatives and 3 agricultural
engineers working in the local government’s extension service were interviewed in the field.
In a third phase, other stakeholders, relevant at the policy level in relation to GMOs, agriculture
and biodiversity conservation in Catalonia were targeted. It consisted of 18 semi-structured
interviews and a quantitative questionnaire. The questionnaire included 35 statements that the
respondents had to rank from 1 (totally disagree) to 4 (totally agree) designed to reinforce that
stakeholders position themselves on issues related to the conception of GMOs, the potential risks
and benefits associated with them and the coexistence between GM and non-GM, with emphasis
in the biodiversity aspects2. Semi-structured interviews were divided in three thematic sections.
The first one dealt with stakeholders’ perception on the state of agricultural environment, while
the second was on the information and communication linked to the GMOs issue in Catalonia.
The third one included questions on the coexistence normative proposal.
The results of this paper show mainly the findings on the first section of the questionnaire, in
which questions targeting the different elements (driving forces, pressures, state, impacts and
responses) of DPSIR model were included. Discourse analysis was performed to elicit
2
Some statements were based on a previous research conducted by Kvakkestad et al. (2007); others were
specific for this case study.
76
stakeholders’ narratives. Discourse analysis is understood here as a way to understand a shared
system of knowledge or belief and the social practices in which it is produced, “through which
meaning is given to physical and social realities” (Hajer, 1995, p. 44).
Stakeholders for the third part were selected among politicians and public administrators,
representatives from agricultural unions, experts from the genetic engineering and organic
agriculture fields, as well as environmental and consumers’ organisations. All of them were
interviewed as representatives of their institutions. During the interview, participants were asked
to list relevant stakeholders that should participate in the debate according to their point of view.
In doing so, internal consistency in the selection of stakeholders was checked so as to ensure
representation of the relevant perspectives. The different participants were asked, at the end of
the interview, to position the institution they represent on the use of GMOs in agriculture.
Qualitative research usually takes into account that expressions of the interviewees should be
interpreted according to the context, because it is possible that one interviewee wants to make
public a speech or attitude in a context, but change them when it is in another context. While this
is true, in the present article the interviews have been used to classify discourses on the main
trends on the state of the agro-environment and also to build up a rich typology of driving forces,
and it does not matter whether one particular interviewee would change his/her statements in a
different context. Thus, a civil servant might admit in private that norms regulating distances
between GM and non-GM fields are impossible to apply while in public he would be reluctant to
do so. What matters is that both opinions are found in society.
4. The DPSIR framework applied to the agroenvironmental state of the Catalan
agriculture – special emphasis on GMOs.
In this section, stakeholders and their positions are characterised. Second, information from the
case study is organised according to the DPSIR model.
Stakeholders
The list of the 18 participant stakeholders is in Table 1. They are characterised and grouped
following their own description of their work and their relation to the agro-environmental state of
Catalonia, with a special focus on GMOs and biodiversity. A third column shows the position that
stakeholders declare themselves to have towards the use of GMOs in agriculture.
77
Table 1: Participant stakeholders
Stakeholder3
Description
Position
Agrarian Cooperatives
Federation
Two agricultural engineers working as
technicians. The Federation groups more
than 60% of the agrarian cooperatives in
Catalonia, representing around 85% of the
Catalan production
It is an available
technology. Risks should
be assessed as in any
technology
Agribusiness company
representative
Genetic and agricultural engineer,
spokesperson of a major company selling
GM seeds in Spain
Positive for GMOs
Agricultural engineer (1)
Organic agriculture engineer developing and
conserving local varieties
Against GMOs
Agricultural engineer (2)
University professor and researcher,
specialist in extensive crops
No position
Catalan agriculture
department technicians
Two agricultural engineers working as
technicians in the rural innovation unit, in
charge of technology transfer
Observer
Consumers’ organisation
technician
Environmental scientist, technician of the
environmental department of a consumers’
organisation
Against GMOs due to
precautionary principle
Development NGOs
technician
Technician working in the Catalan
Development NGOs Federation, campaigner Against GMOs
of the food sovereignty programme.
Environmental organisation Biologist, representative of an international
spokesperson
environmental NGO in Catalonia
Negative for GMOs, very
critical
Farmers union
representative (1)
Maize farmer, member of the executive
board of the union (representing 75% of
Catalan farmers). Spokesperson on food
security and quality
Against GMOs
Farmers union technician
(2)
Technician agricultural engineer, working for
the second most representative union in
Catalonia
There is not enough
experience and
information concerning
this technology
Green Party representative
Biologist, member of the Catalan Parliament
representing the left-wing green party, which
is in the Catalan government
GMOs refusal
International NGO member
Agronomist, working in an international NGO
promoting sustainable management and use
Against GMOs
of agricultural biodiversity based on people’s
control and local knowledge
Molecular biologist
Biologist and genetist researching in an
institution depending on the Spanish
3
Neutral
In light of the conflict that surrounds GMOs, the use of proper and institution names is avoided to ensure
privacy of participant stakeholders.
78
government
Organic agriculture
certification body
representative
Director and technician of the organic
agriculture certification body. It is a public
body depending on the Catalan government
For the no existence of
GMOs
due
to
the
difficulties in coexisting
with organic agriculture in
Catalonia
Public research institution
on agricultural technology
Biotechnologist working in the development
of new GM varieties and research related to
pollen flow (coexistence) in a research
institution depending on the Catalan
government
We should not disregard
the advantages that can
be provided by this
technology
From the analysis of stakeholders’ opinions regarding the use of GMOs in agriculture, several
positions can be identified. Positive reactions can be observed in stakeholders directly involved in
GMOs development and commercialisation while negative responses are linked with those
stakeholders involved in social movements (NGOs, consumer associations), one of the farmers
union and organic agriculture. Researchers related to biotechnology research position
themselves as neutral. Finally, others decided not to position themselves clearly, appealing to the
strong conflicts on this issue.
In spite of the different positions on agricultural GMOs as a broad scientific and social issue,
when analysing their perceptions of the role that GMOs play in the Catalan agriculture, only two
groups are evidenced. The first group includes stakeholders related to organic agriculture, the
farmers unions, the consumers’ organisation, environmental and development NGOs and the
Green Party representative. The second is integrated by the genetic engineers, the spokesperson
of an agribusiness company and the Catalan agriculture department.
Catalonia’s agriculture crisis under the light of DPSIR
In this section, data collected from in-depth interviews and questionnaires is organised following
the DPSIR model. The assessment of the state of agriculture in Catalonia –and the role played by
GMOs- is done for the present time, although stakeholders were also asked to make projections
for short and medium time.
A state of crisis
The starting point of this research was the description made by stakeholders on the state of the
agroenvironment in Catalonia, focusing on the role played by GMOs. The state is defined here,
following Maxim et al. (this issue), as the quantity of biological (such as biodiversity erosion),
physical (i.e. landscape fragmentation, decreasing number of farms) and chemical phenomena
79
(i.e. pollution) chosen by stakeholders to describe the risks of not desirable agri-environmental
changes in Catalonia.
The generalised characterisation of the Catalan agriculture was as in a state of crisis. All
interviewed stakeholders coincided in this statement, with only small differences depending on
the agricultural sector but concurring in the general assessment. The results among policy level
relevant stakeholders fully coincide with previous research among farmers.
All stakeholders agreed in labelling conventional agriculture as highly polluting due to the high
use of synthetic inputs or the agricultural oil dependency. The characterisation of agriculture as a
source of pollution is strongly linked with slurry from pigs, which is considered a main agroenvironmental issue in Catalonia. Following this narrative, conventional agriculture is
unanimously described as being currently unsustainable. Other sides of this description are the
overall characterisation of the farmers’ situation, described as “desperate”, “discouraged”,
“without an easy solution” due to low economic profitability. These circumstances lead to a
diminishing number of farms and agricultural land in actual use, which is also considered as a
threat for agricultural biodiversity and landscape conservation. It is interesting that nobody feels
responsible for this situation, partly because most of the driving forces are considered by most
stakeholders as external or even given.
Regarding maize production, all stakeholders coincide in recognising the growing importance of
GM seeds. This situation, as it will be discussed, is assessed differently by the diverse
stakeholders. Areas planted with GMOs have been continuously increasing since its introduction
in 1998. In that sense, stakeholders have also referred to the dependency of Catalan agroindustry on imported animal feed and fodder which, in the case of maize and soy, are mostly GM.
Another shared view regarding GMOs highlights power concentration in agribusiness companies,
including access to patenting. The role of organic agriculture is characterised as still minor, but
growing in importance. This general trend is not being followed by organic maize production,
which has diminished since 1998. It is seen with concern by some stakeholders, especially those
linked with organic sector (Binimelis, 2008).
In despite of the overall coincidences, the group of stakeholders which is prone to the use of
GMOs includes in the description of the state the consequences of the lack of implementation of
the potential for modernisation –and specially biotechnology- which is seen as a promising
technology for mitigating the environmental impacts of high input agricultural systems. A second
difference in the description of the state is the inclusion by GMOs opponents of genetic
contamination in the characterisation of pollution. This concept is used for referring to the
80
unwanted process that transgenes from GM crops move to other organisms and become
established in natural or agricultural ecosystems (McAfee, 2003; Walters, 2004; Verhoog, 2007;
Binimelis, 2004). It opens the possibility to cause direct effects to biodiversity by affecting nontarget species or relatives through unintentionally transferring them traits of the GMOs. This
contested statement and its implications will be discussed below.
Driving forces
Driving forces are changes in the social, economic and institutional systems, which are triggering
directly and indirectly pressures on the environmental state of agriculture (Maxim et al., this
issue). Focus is placed in the discussion on the role played by GMOs. Four non-hierarchical but
interacting levels of driving forces can be distinguished (Rodríguez-Labajos et al., this issue),
influencing the structure and relation between the social, economic, political and environmental
systems. Socio-economic activities directly linked with the pressures are “primary driving forces”.
They correspond to the level of management. Primary driving forces are considered to be more
flexible in the short term than the “secondary driving forces”, the policy level. In the long term and
with a broader spatial sphere of influence there is the level of “tertiary driving forces”, ideology
and lifestyle. Finally, the “base driving forces” include fundamental trends, such as demographic
or cultural, that are only influenced by social decisions in the long term. A characterisation of the
main driving forces influencing the current agro-environmental state and linked with GMOs
introduction is presented in table 2, after stakeholders’ perceptions.
Table 2: Driving forces of the present agro-environmental state in Catalonia
Level
Description / Indicators
Demographic factors
Socio-political factors
Basic driving
Economic factors
forces
Scientific and technological factors
Cultural factors
Tertiary
driving
forces:
Global trends
Globalisation of economies and trade
Globalisation of consumption patterns: increasing demand for imported
products
Ideology and
lifestyle
Consumption patterns
Intensification of the demand for more environmental-friendly and traditional
foods
Changes in the cultural system
De-linkage between rural and urban populations and lifestyles
81
Level
Description / Indicators
Loss of agriculture’s social importance
Knowledge information and technological progress
Change of the demand for new technological developments in agriculture
Common Agricultural Policy
Subsidies linked to production
International treaties, laws and regulations
Free trade agreements
Secondary
driving
forces:
Land use policy
Changes in land use policies in favour of urbanisation and tourism
Hydrological policy: shifts from dry to irrigated land
Policy level
Environmental policy
Regulations on food security and quality
Changes in chemical policy
Research policy
Promotion of research in biotechnology
Changes in agricultural practices
Increasing importance of input and technological-intensive agriculture
Abandonment of arable land
Land use practices
Primary
driving
forces:
Increasing land concentration
Intensification of urbanisation
Changes in landscape planning
Management
level
Trade
Increasing number of import products
Tourism
Increasing flow of tourists into rural areas
Technological transfer practices
Low level of public technological transfer in agriculture
Changes in the cultural system, linked to demographic and socio-economic factors, are
considered important basic driving forces by the interviewed stakeholders. Internal migratory
movements from the countryside to urban areas have lead to the depopulation of permanent
inhabitants in rural areas. This trend is reverted only temporarily, associated with the holiday
periods or when temporary workers arrive to the rural areas. Moreover, out migration of rural
young population translates in the ageing of rural population. The process has led to a “delinkage” between most of the population and the rural areas and therefore, the agricultural
82
practices. Following it, most stakeholders argue that agriculture has lost social importance and
has been relegated to a secondary sphere in public policies.
Regarding tertiary driving forces, there was agreement pointing out to globalisation of economies
and trade as major driving forces. Consumption patterns are internationalised as the demand for
imported products is increasing (e.g. maize and soybeans as commodities). Changes in
consumption patterns are also mentioned at a local scale, as there is an increasing demand for
the so-called “environmentally-friendly”, “traditional” and “healthier” food. Also changes in
knowledge, information and technological progress are referred to. The production-oriented
model of agriculture and the changes in the social and cultural system have driven agriculture to
specialisation (e.g. integration model in animal farms) and technification. This process, which
started in Spain during the 1960s4, occurs along the food chain: from hybrid seed varieties and
imported animal races to processing at the final stages. GMOs proponents include also among
the tertiary driving forces the so-called “risk adversity” behaviour of agrobiotechnology opponents.
Secondary driving forces are linked to policy developments. Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is
pointed out as the major driving force, linked to subsidies geared to increase production. Besides
CAP subsidies, increase of area sown with maize is related to hydrological policy and the
conversion of dry to irrigated land, resulting in land concentration. Finally, maize internal
production is also related to international treaties, laws and regulations, especially connected with
maize quota agreements. Other cited land use policies are the changes in favour of urbanisation,
related to second residences and tourist activities, competing with agricultural uses.
In regard to environmental policies, interviewed stakeholders not linked with the organic sector
refer to the environmental and safety regulations as an obstacle for competing in the global
market. For instance, obligations within the REACH policy (European registration, evaluation and
authorization of chemicals system) to substitute actual commonly used broad spectrum
herbicides linked to maize production were mentioned. Driving forces related to the research
policy have also been pointed out. Most stakeholders identify Catalan research policy related to
agronomy as oriented towards the implementation of biotechnology in agriculture, although some
disagreements exist regarding this issue.
Primary driving forces are those at the management level. Management is defined here as policy
enforcement but also to refer to those processes derived from shared practices. They are mostly
4
In the period of 1960s and 1970s the farming modernisation in Spain starts. The agrarian surface in Spain was
reoriented to feed and fodder crops, such as maize. Moreover, during the 60s the importation policy began –
through a Decree authorising importations- for this type of commodities (Domínguez-Martín, 2001).
83
linked with the implementation of agricultural policies. Stakeholders refer to intensification of
agriculture linked to the production-oriented policy. The process of modernisation comes along
with the promotion of technology and an input intensive agricultural model. Changes in land use
practices are also important. Abandonment of arable land due to demographic and socioeconomic grounds is stated. This abandonment, together with new land irrigation policies, has
driven to a decreasing number of farms. In fact, only those farms with more than 100 ha have
grown in Catalonia (IDESCAT, 2003). This is also connected with urbanisation patterns and
changes in landscape planning, as the promotion of rural areas as tourism destinations. Finally,
lack of public technological extension is also brought up by some of the interviewed persons.
Pressures on the state of the agro-environment
Adjusting the definitions used in Maxim et al. (this issue) to this case study, pressures are defined
here as the consequences of the implementation of an agricultural model which are perceived by
stakeholders as having the potential to produce changes in the state of the agro-environment
leading or contributing to impacts. Although stakeholders share their views concerning the
description of most of the driving forces, differences can be found regarding their perceptions on
what are the pressures related to GMOs on the agro-environmental state.
The first group argues that GMOs represent a negative pressure for the agro-environmental state,
as they worsen the environmental and social impacts of the present production model. This
technology is discussed as representing a uniquely rapid increase in intensification (e.g.
Watkinson et al., 2000). Moreover, it is argued that this process damages integrity of organic and
conventional agriculture and the seed system. This point is connected with the reflection on
uncertainty and irreversibility of the process. In that sense, GMOs are ranked, in the quantitative
questionnaire as contributing to a decrease of agrobiodiversity. Factors influencing this,
according to stakeholders, encompass administration support to biotechnology research and
introduction of GMOs, lack of social debate, pressures by agribusiness companies and
deficiencies in communication mechanisms.
The second group assesses the introduction of GM maize, as it will be discussed below, as a
positive response to the crisis, while characterising GMOs refusal as being a negative pressure.
These stakeholders argue that there exists a technical compatibility between GM crops and
organic and conventional farming as not substantial differences can be found between them.
Concerning the potential of GM crops to pose risks to biodiversity, no consensus is found within
the group. However, a general statement is that the introduction of new GM varieties results, to a
greater or lesser extent, in an increment of the agricultural biodiversity, enhancing also the
84
contribution of biotechnology for sustainability. From that point of view, the concept of
contamination should be neglected as it implies a pejorative quality of GMOs.
Impacts
Impacts are changes in the environmental functions, affecting the social, economic and
environmental dimensions, and which are caused by changes in the state of the agrobiodiversity,
as examined by Maxim et al. (this issue). As we have already discussed, pressure
characterisation varies among stakeholders. These differences in perceptions are subsequently
linked to the definitions on impacts. Therefore, the two groups distinguished above maintain their
differences when discussing the impacts.
The first group of stakeholders agrees in considering the so-called genetic contamination as a
major impact on biodiversity exerted by the introduction of GM maize. Stakeholders within this
group have argued that this could have implications from environmental, agronomics, economics
and socials points of view, raising questions on food safety, integrity of organic agriculture and
the seed system or concerning consumer’s rights. The concept of genetic contamination is linked
to both conventional and organic farming. However, as price for conventional and GM maize is
not differentiated, and labelling regulations5 leave a threshold for adventitious presence of GM
traces, only few cases concerning conventional agriculture have been reported by farmers. On
the contrary, most organic farmers and consumers reject the presence of GM material in organic
products, which was prohibited in organic products by the European organic agriculture and
farming legislation (Regulation 2092/91/EEC)6 and discarded by the International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and the Codex Alimentarius7.
The second group of stakeholders starts from the basis that GM varieties presently sown in the
area have been approved and thus, risk assessment has been conducted, among others, by the
European Food Safety Agency. From this point of view, GM varieties are considered as safe as
conventional ones or even safer as they have gone through more exhaustive risk assessments.
Another important agreement within this group is to conceive genetic engineering as a
5
Labelling thresholds were established in 0.9% for authorised modifications of each ingredient contained by the
product (Regulation (EC) No 1830/2003).
6
A new regulation, (CE) 834/2007 has been recently approved, which has to be implemented after the 1st of
January 2009. It is explicitly allowing a 0,9% presence of GMOs in organic production.
7
The Codex Alimentarius was created in 1963 by the Food and Agriculture Organisation and the World Health
Organisation. It is a mechanism under international law on agreements which allows the parties -practically all of
the countries involved in international trade of agricultural products- to document their mutual understanding of
requirements for foodstuffs.
85
continuation of conventional plant breeding, which can increase control and predictability of the
expressed traits. Therefore, the concept of contamination is rejected and the cases in which
unwanted presence of GM material have been found become only a matter of economic dispute,
since organic production suffers diminishing economic profit. Finally, stakeholders classified in
the second group bring up the opportunity costs of not using agro-biotechnology as an impact
derived from the rejection of GMOs. In that sense, it is difficult to compete in the global market
with basic products such as conventional maize.
Responses
Responses are defined as policy actions which are directly or indirectly triggered by the
perception of impacts and which attempts to prevent, eliminate, compensate or reduce their
consequences. All stakeholders have concurred in targeting the so-called “quality agriculture”. In
that sense, the highly fragmented Catalan agricultural landscape is seen at present as a factor for
the loss of competitiveness in the global market but it is also considered to have a future
potential. This fragmented landscape, together with a highly variable topography and climatic
conditions, are the basis for differentiated quality agriculture. However, the definition of quality is
a matter of disagreement. On the one hand, the first group argues that quality would represent an
organic agriculture-based model –which would exclude GMOs-, with a much higher share in the
use of local seed varieties and direct selling mechanisms. On the other hand, the second group
agrees in assessing the introduction of GM maize as a positive response towards achieving
quality, obtaining a more competitive and environmentally-friendly agriculture, e.g. using less
pesticides. In that sense, it is argued that an abolishment of restrictive legislation for GMOs
commercialisation,
which
burdens
the
producers,
would
contribute
to
enhance
also
competitiveness in global markets.
5. Discussion
As it has been developed, the role played by GMOs in the agro-environmental state of Catalonia
can be described using alternative narratives or frames. Our results show that, on the one hand,
different descriptions of the problem are possible, as different frames of the policy-objective exist.
These empirical results coincide with previous studies on contending European agri-environment
discourses, which categorized them as “eco-efficient” in the case of GMOs proponents and
“apocalyptic” for the case of opponents. A third discourse, “managerialist” has not been clearly
identified in the case study (Levidow and Carr, 2007). It is important here to note that discourses
are a shared way to reflect on a phenomena and their description always entails a reduction of
the multiple views which are representing. In fact, the debate on GMOs has been characterised
by confrontation at the societal level, but also by low consensus on the scientific issues and the
86
analytical methods to be applied (Busch et al., 2004). The existence of different narratives
depends on complex and value-laden considerations, shaped by interests embedded in different
cultural, ethical and socio-economic context. Educational background seems to have also an
influence in these contested perceptions among experts (Kvakkestad et al., 2006).
In spite of this, current definitions of the DPSIR framework (i.e. the ones used by the EEA (2003))
establish the need for a scientific causal proof of the relationship between pressures and the
impacts perceived in the socio-economic system, relying on a strong realistic view of knowledge.
The establishment of the causal link between the different DPSIR categories is not only
depending on the world-view, as it has been discussed, but it is also a function of the state of
knowledge, the consideration on uncertainty for policy-making, the agreement on the
demarcation of the specific system of interest which is under analysis and the scale to be
considered (Maxim et al., this issue). In that sense, the framing and objective of the analysis, the
assessment of the significance of the impacts, the selection of indicators or aspects such as the
weighting factors cannot only be decided from a scientific perspective, but are politicallymotivated “as each indicator system is generally based either explicitly or implicitly on a defined
objective specifying the direction in which reality is to change” (Brauner et al., 2002).
6. Conclusion
In this article the DPSIR model was used to organise information on the state of agroenvironment in Catalonia, focusing on stakeholders’ perceptions on the role that GMOs play in
the agro-environmental system. Results show that the application of this framework allows
displaying the available information, as well as to make explicit the different stakeholders’
positions.
EEA DPSIR definition is based in causal relationships between the different components of the
system in a mechanistic way. This could result in a communication deficit (Svarstad et al, 2007)
when applied to complex situations, which are characterised by non-linearity, in which not all the
relevant information is available or indeterminacy in framing the issue exists. Definitions proposed
by ALARM (see Maxim et al, this issue) try to overcome some of these shortcomings, allowing to
incorporate contested discourses. Differences in conceptualising the same issue –the
introduction of GMOs in agriculture- can lead to diverse policy actions. Broadening the scope of
DPSIR definitions combining the 4 spheres of the sustainability frame could allow for the
incorporation of multiple causalities and more complete descriptions of the system as well as to
incorporate socio-political aspects to the analysis (Maxim et al., this issue). In this way, different
discourses can be produced on the basis of an examination of the stakeholders’ narratives,
87
contributing to a more transparent and inclusive use of the DPSIR framework. However,
transparency does not lead necessarily to conflict resolution.
Thus, defining the introduction of GMOs as a pressure or as a response could bring together an
entirely different agricultural model orientation, originating also differences regarding regulatory
actions, research expenditure, changes in management strategies or actions by public opinions.
Making this information more transparent could help to improve the debate but also to sharpen it,
by bringing into the open the underlying coincidences and differences. Also, recognising and
making explicit complexity and uncertainty would help to improve the decision-making process by
incorporating all legitimate perspectives into the analysis.
Acknowledgements
Comments by Joan Martínez Alier, Nicolas Kosoy, Ines Oman, Kaja Peterson and Mariana
Walter are gratefully acknowledged. This research has been partly financed by the EC within the
FP6 Integrated Project “ALARM” (COCE-CT-2003-506675).
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Article 4:
’Transgenic Treadmill’: Responses to the emergence and spread of
Glyphosate-Resistant Johnsongrass in Argentina
Accepted for publication in Geoforum
93
94
’Transgenic Treadmill’: Responses to the emergence and
spread of Glyphosate-Resistant Johnsongrass in Argentina
Rosa Binimelis1*, Walter Pengue2 and Iliana Monterroso3
(1) Institute of Environmental Science and Technology – Autonomous University of
Barcelona
(2) Grupo de Ecología del Paisaje y Medio Ambiente, Universidad de Buenos Aires
(3) Área de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Rural, FLACSO Guatemala
*Corresponing author: [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The broad-spectrum herbicide glyphosate has become the largest-selling crop-protection
product worldwide. The increased use of glyphosate is associated with the appearance of a
growing number of tolerant or resistant weeds, with socio-environmental consequences
besides loss of productivity. In 2002, a glyphosate-resistant biotype of johnsongrass
(Sorghum halepense (L.)) appeared in Argentina, now covering at least 10.000 hectares.
This paper analyzes the driving forces behind the emergence and spread of this weed.
Management responses and their implications are also examined.
Preventing strategies against glyphosate-resistant johnsongrass fail because of the
institutional setting. Reactive measures, however, imply transferring the risks to the society
and the environment through the introduction of novel genetically modified crops, that
allows the use of yet more herbicide. This in turn reinforces the emergence of herbicideresistant weeds, constituting a new phenomenon of intensification, the “transgenic
treadmill”.
Keywords:
Argentina,
economics
of
bioinvasions,
genetically
modified
soybean,
glyphosate-resistant weeds, herbicide treadmill, johnsongrass, transgenic treadmill.
1. Introduction
The use of the broad-spectrum herbicide glyphosate began in the 1970s. Since then it has
grown steadily to become the largest-selling single crop-protection product worldwide. Over
the last years, the agricultural use of glyphosate has risen due to price reductions, to an
increase in supply associated with patent expiration, also to further implementation of
95
minimum and non-tillage practices1 and to the adoption of genetically modified (GM)
glyphosate-resistant (GR) cultivars (Woodburn, 2000).
The appearance of tolerant or resistant weeds is related to an increased use of glyphosate,
which, in turn, implies environmental and monetary costs beside productivity losses
(Service, 2007). Although initially considered a low-risk herbicide for the development of
herbicide-resistance by industrial scientists (Bradshaw et al., 1997), the first records of GRweeds date from 1996 in Australia. Currently, 14 GR weeds have been documented
worldwide (Heap, 2007; Valverde, 2007; Powles, 2008). This article deals with a highly
invasive weed called johnsongrass. Several GR cases appeared in Argentina while two
others were reported by the University of Arkansas, the Mississipi State University and
Monsanto in the USA (Monsanto, 2008). In Argentina, additionally, some common weeds
such as Parietaria debilis, Petunia axilaris, Verbena litoralis, Verbena bonariensis,
Hybanthus parviflorus, Iresine diffusa, Commelina erecta and Ipomoea sp. have been
reported to be glyphosate-tolerant (Papa, 2000).
The appearance of herbicide-resistant weeds associated with an increased consumption of
glyphosate by GR cropping systems has become one of the main ecological risks when
releasing GMOs to the environment (Altieri, 2005; Barton and Dracup, 2000; Ervin et al.,
2003; Martinez-Ghersa et al., 2003; McAfee, 2003; Powles, 2003; Snow et al., 2005;
Steinbrecher, 2001). Until today, those documented cases have been solely assessed from
an agronomic perspective rather than accounting for a broader context (Beckie, 2006; Duke
and Powles, 2008; Powles, 2008). In this paper we will review and discuss the emergence
of GR johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense (L.)) biotypes in Argentina and its associated
management strategies by means of analysing the political, economic and institutional
driving forces leading this to phenomenon. We also devote part of the paper to analyse the
consequences for rural dynamics.
In Argentina, over 16 million hectares are dedicated to GM GR soybeans production;
glyphosate substitutes for tillage practices. Johnsongrass is a cosmopolitan perennial grass
native to the Mediterranean region, and considered as one of the ten worst weeds in the
world (FAO, 2007). It was introduced in Argentina in the beginning of the 20th century as
forage but by 1936 it was already banned for agricultural purposes. However, due to its
highly invasive nature, it continued spreading and became a key restrictive factor for the
agricultural production model. The technological package associated with Roundup Ready
1
Non-tillage practices belong to agronomic conservation systems in which the crop is sown over the
stubble of the former crop. The soil is not turned over and worked with the minimum movement possible.
The system facilitates erosion reduction and higher production under continuous agriculture.
96
soybeans was believed to control the pest by the mid 1990s. However, Monsanto’s
technicians just recently reported a GR johnsongrass biotype (Heap, 2007). Although the
first plots with GR johnsongrass appeared in the north of Argentina by 2002, it can now be
found practically in every agricultural region of the country.
Its appearance can be linked to some of the main risk factors associated to the evolution of
herbicide-resistant weeds discussed in the weed-resistant management literature. Some of
these risks arise from the frequent application of highly effective herbicides, such as
glyphosate, in intensive low-diversity cropping systems, and the presence of annual weed
species occurring at high population densities and characterised by its wide distribution,
large genetic variability, prolific seed production and its efficient dissemination (Powles,
2003; Beckie, 2006).
The political economy of agrarian modernization and biotechnology, and the economics of
bioinvasions can offer additional insights to understand the mechanisms of herbicideresistant weeds’ appearance and spread, as well as offering a novel perspective on its
implications. Agricultural biotechnology has posed new and cumulative challenges to the
future of rural spaces (Bridge et al., 2003; Gibbs et al., 2008; Marsden, 2008). In that sense,
controversies on GMOs evidence a clash between agricultural paradigms and development
alternatives (Altieri, 2005; Binimelis, 2008; Levidow and Boschert, 2008; Herrick, 2005;
Lyons and Lawrence, 1999; Lyson, 2002; Marsden, 2008; McAfee, 2003; 2008; Verhoog,
2007). These, in turn, intensify previous differences born from the Green Revolution and its
social and environmental consequences (Buttel and Barker, 1985; Buttel et al., 1985).
As we will argue, GM techniques became the cornerstone for the development of the agroindustrial model in Argentina. Biotechnology provided a basis for dealing with technical
problems such as large-scale intensive-capital monoculture (e.g. weed management)
(Marsden, 2008), fuelling the expansion, integration and internationalization of the soybean
production and commercialisation in detriment to other alternatives (Pengue, 2005). In that
sense, the diffusion of GM technology took place under the three neo-liberal pillars of
privatization, commoditisation and deregulation (Kloppenburg, 1988; Lyson, 2002; McAfee,
2003; Roff, 2008; Salleh, 2006). It was during the recent soybean export-tax conflict in
Argentina in 2008 that the clash between viewpoints regarding the country’s relative
position in the world’s economy and its bet for trade liberalisation and export competition
became more evident. The decline in the price of soybeans in late 2008 because of the
world economic crisis will presumably lead to a questioning of the model of export-led
growth.
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In general, the neo-liberal approach to agriculture is one where the determination of the
agrarian dynamics and changes is left to the free market. This is done by dumping
decisions to the individual sphere (Binimelis, 2008; Cocklin et al., 2008; Devos, 2008;), and
by setting self interested free choice as the only ways of safeguarding rights and liberties
(Roff, 2008). The same reasoning operates regarding weed management resistance.
However, the social consequences from the application of this approach to weed resistance
management have been largerly under-explored. Two approaches summarize the different
attitudes for managing weed resistance (Mueller et al., 2005). The first one is identified with
“proactive” or “preventive” management, and includes identifying major pathways and
changing environmental conditions to reduce the likelihood of future resistance, e.g.
diversifying the agroecosystem, rotating crops and/or herbicides with different sites of
action, or including integrated weed management strategies. The other approach is known
as “reactive management”, and implies actions which aim at reducing resistance costs by
changing the herbicide when no longer works; therefore, applying the most cost-efficient
technology at any given time. These two strategies are also known as mitigation and
adaptation, respectively (Perrings, 2005).
The dilemma about which approach to choose depends on the turning point during the
decision-making process but also on the predictability of the resistance and our attitude
towards uncertainty. Although a preventive strategy is usually advised (for the case of
glyphosate, see e.g. Powles (2003; 2008)), farmers engaged in high-input systems are
reluctant to opt for it because of short-term commercial costs and/or the inability to foresee
the economic risks (Shaner, 1995). Within the reactive approach, it is assumed that novel
strategies will become available when required, but also that the costs of these future
strategies will not be larger than those of the present management practices. In fact, the
evolution of weed herbicide resistance has neither decreased herbicide use nor
incremented non-chemical practices (Beckie, 2006), but rather intensificated herbicide
consumption, the so-called “herbicide treadmill”.
The aim of this paper is to analyze the driving forces behind the initial spread of GR
johnsongrass and the social, economic and environmental implications of pre-emptive or
reactive response strategies in the society. Reasons behind farmers’ willingness or
reluctance to adopt preventive resistance management strategies are also discussed, as
well as the institutional conditions and constraints. The existence of a new form of treadmill
phenomenon, not only leading to the increase of herbicide use but also to the intensification
in the use of GM crops will also be explored.
98
For doing so, this paper is structured in five sections. Following the introduction and
methods, we discuss the driving forces behind the appearance of GR johnsongrass. The
Argentinean agricultural system is characterized, with special focus on the GR soybean
production and future scenarios. Next, the environmental history of johnsongrass and the
emergence of GR biotypes are described in terms of spread, potential impacts and
responses put in place. Finally, we discuss the implications of different management
strategies and provide some concluding remarks.
2. Methods
There is a small but hitherto undisputed body of evidence concerning the existence of the
invasion process of GR johnsongrass (Heap, 2007; Powles, 2008). In this study, we
present the results of qualitative field research on actors’ perceptions and understanding of
the process. The qualitative techniques included semi-structured group and individual indepth interviews and also participatory observation.
The use of these techniques is grounded on the characteristics of the case study.
Complexity inherent to the invasion process and to the production system is characterised
by uncertainties about the impacts related to the invasion process of GR johnsongrass. On
the one hand, data regarding the degree of spread of the GR johnsongrass is incomplete
due to lack of official statistics and voluntary reporting (as it will be discussed in next
sections). This invalidates the analysis of impacts from a quantitative perspective. On the
other hand, there are different perspectives regarding the significance of the invasion,
which are better elicited through qualitative approaches (Kvale, 1996).
The informants were selected among main actors who participate in the management
strategies and/or governance of the issue of GR johnsongrass. During 2007 20 semistructured interviews were conducted in the provinces of Salta, Tucumán, Santiago del
Estero, Entre Rios and Buenos Aires. These interviews aimed at eliciting the viewpoints of
experts, practitioners and actors involved in the GR-johnsonsgrass conflict. Interviews were
conducted with three botanists specialized in weeds, three affected farmers, two ecologists,
two representatives of the main biotechnology company in Argentina, three agrarian
technicians, one representative of the National Agrifood Health and Quality Service
(SENASA), four scholars and researchers at private agronomy institutions and two
representatives of producers’ associations. The selection of actors was based on the
different roles and perceptions related to the management of the GR johnsongrass (Flick,
2006; Bauer and Gaskell, 2000). The interview guide included four main aspects: a)
agricultural transformations and productive dynamics on the study area; b) driving forces
behind the emergence of GR johnsongrass; c) an assessment of the costs and impacts
99
derived from the appearance of the GR johnsongrass; and d) an estimation of the GR
management measures and proposals. Collected information was analyzed using
ATLAS.ti, a qualitative data analysis software which allows to analyse large data sets
through setting categories, systematise and refine concepts (Kelle, 2000; Lewins and
Silver, 2007).
Information on the socio-economic and biological processes was collected to unravel the
environmental history of the johnsongrass, the Argentinean GR soybean system and the
current implications of the agronomic production model. An institutional analysis and a
literature review from political economy of biotechnologies, ecological economics,
agroecology, the economics of bioinvasions and weed management provided the analytical
tools for tackling the GR Johnsongrass conflict.
3. The Argentinean GR soybean system
The driving forces behind the appearance of GR johnsongrass cannot be separated from
the Argentina’s rural development model, particularly the institutional setting and the new
agrarian organization of space (i.e. the agriculturisation and pampeanisation processes). In
this sense, emergence of GR johnsongrass could be seen as a foreseeable “side-effect” of
this process, and its responses would be determined by the system’s constraints and
opportunities and also by the future productive scenarios.
3.1. Production system and technological applications
Modern Argentinean agriculture started in the late 19th century with a mixed production
system (based in cattle ranching and agricultural crop rotations) which promoted an
extensive low-input agronomic cropping scheme in the Pampas (Viglizzio et al., 2002). The
Pampas is a vast, flat pastureland of Argentina, which covers more than 55 million hectares
of arable land. However, cultivation with inappropriate tillage systems and machinery has
lead to erosion. In the early 1990s, the adoption of no-till practices diminished the erosion
problems but raised herbicide consumption. Non-tillage systems and soybean-wheat
rotation displaced the mixed crop-cattle production system in most of the Pampas pastures,
allowing farmers to produce three crops over a two years period. These practices also
opened a window of opportunity to a range of herbicides with different modes of action in
each stage of the soybean cultivation system. As a result, weed control became 40% of the
input costs for farmers. By 1987, 50 chemical compounds were marketed for weed control,
22 of them for soybean fields, under several different formulations. However, only four
principles comprised 60% of the market value (León et al., 1987). Fifteen companies
controlled the market; of which 80% were multinational enterprises (Pengue, 2000).
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The process above implied the substitution of traditional cattle production with permanent
agriculture and its displacement to marginal areas or feedlots. The process of
agriculturisation, as known in Argentina (Manuel-Navarrete et al, 2008) transfigured the
mixed farming system towards an agri-industrial model. It is characterised by the diffusion of
specialised mono-cultural crops, the progressive intensification of the system by the use of
external inputs, the geographical separation of livestock and crops and an increasing
reliance upon public, but also increasingly private, research and extension system
(Marsden, 2008).
In the extra-pampean areas, with more complex environments, the system brings to play an
increasing use of external inputs for weed and pest control. The process, called
pampeanisation, implies the export of the technological, financial and agronomical model of
the Pampas to other ecoregions, such as The Great Chaco or The Yungas (Pengue, 2005),
hence expanding the agricultural frontier. In that sense, demand of new land increased
Argentina’s deforestation rates to 0,85% per year, above those found in Africa (0,78%) and
above the average in South America (0,50%) (Morello and Pengue, 2007). The Department
of Agriculture, Cattle Ranching, Fisheries and Food (SAGPyA, acronym in Spanish)
documents a threefold increase of the cropped area between 1996/1997 and 2006/2007
sowing seasons.
The processes of agriculturalisation and pampeanisation were fostered by the introduction
of the mono-cultural GR transgenic soybean model under no-tillage practices in the mid
1990s. Using glyphosate, farmers were able to control a diversity of weeds (including the
most conspicuous, e.g. Sorghum halepense, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus or
Chenopodium album) at a very low cost. This allowed farmers to manage more land and
increase overall productivity and profitability based on a vertical integration model (Mueller
et al., 2005). In the 2006/7 campaign, 16 million hectares were sown with soy, and
production reached its historical record: 48 million tones, half of the total agricultural
production for Argentina (SAGPyA, 2007). Practically 100% of total soybean production is
based on genetically modified GR soybeans.
3.2. The institutional setting
A series of structural reforms were necessary to favour a rapid diffusion of the technology.
Government policies were among the major driving forces shifting and fitting extensive
agriculture and cattle raising to the requirements of international markets. On the one hand,
moving towards the commoditisation of the Argentinean agricultural model produced a big
surplus in the current account balance, allowing the payment of the external debt interests,
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while increasing economic resources to maintain social plans. Exports account for most of
the improvement in tax revenues and half of these taxes come from soybeans exports and
its derivates (Damill et al., 2006). However, on the other hand, empowered market forces
had a stronger voice in terms of strategic production decisions. Responsibilities were
transferred from the state to technical NGOs and agribusiness corporations, while services
such as extension usually offered by state institutions were dismantled (Manuel-Navarrete
et al., 2008). It means that agricultural modernization processes and the adoption of GM
technologies occurred mostly in the absence of state actors and institutions. This implied an
important shift in actors concerning agrarian dynamics, development pathways and
technological modernization. The active role of private actors in terms of technological
diffusion and professional assistance is evidenced in strategies that are based on private
sector responses. Multinational corporations become relevant actors and the major vehicle
of technological modernization (Spielman, 2007).
3.3. The new social organization of space
Linked to the institutional setting, the social organization of space plays a major role as a
driver in the emergence and spread of the GR-johnsongrass as well as in the adoption of
response strategies. Changes in spatial patterns associated with the expansion of soybean
in Argentina have been explored in detail elsewhere (Paruelo and Oesterheld, 2004).
These spatial transformations associated with changes in land tenure structure are
particularly relevant for the analysis of johnsongrass spread. According to the last
agricultural census, units larger than 10,000 hectares have increased 13% in number and
14% in extension in Pampas between 1988 and 2002 (SAGPyA, 2003). Since the 1990s,
there has been also an increase in land concentration in the Northern provinces of
Argentina, primarily devoted to soybean production. In the Northern provinces of Salta and
Santiago del Estero between 1988 and 2002 the area for agriculture increased by 70%,
which means an expansion of 120,000 has per year of the agricultural frontier. About 66%
of this increase is explained by increments of soybean-cultivated areas (Paruelo and
Oesterheld, 2004).
New forms of land tenure favour an increasing concentration of agricultural production and
management. Coinciding with findings of Kloppenburg and Geisler (1985) on the analysis
of the agricultural ladder in the United States, renting land through leasing arrangements
and other financial mechanisms have now come to be an advantage to achieving economic
efficiency. Their findings underpin the fact that new social forms of production are no
longer linked to the productive chain through ownership, but rather the system has broader
objectives of net revenue and economic efficiency. In Argentina, more than 50% of the
cultivated land is leased and, according to Pengue (2005), 75% of the grain in the Pampas
102
is produced by large land leaseholders. Most of the leasing contracts are annual, which
impose a high pressure on the land in order to obtain the maximum revenue in the shortest
time. Production and management concentration facilitates the adoption of input-oriented
(machinery, fertilizers, pesticides RR soybean) and process-oriented (no-tillage) systems.
However, technological adoption and change are closely related to capital and information
availability. While changes in production practices and adoption of GM technologies favour
yield increases, Paruelo and Oesterheld (2004) have documented that beneficiaries of
technological improvements are mainly large producers. For this reason, the extension of
the lease regimes up to 5 years has become one of the main claims of small and mediumsized farmers (Federación Agraria, 2008)
In the case of soybean production systems, there is increasing concentration of production
and management, where production processes are predominantly dominated by
managerial tasks performed by a contractor (Manuel-Navarrete et al, 2008) either
representing national corporate or international investment interests. According to Buzzi
(quoted in Pengue (2007)) 3% of the producers concentrate 70% of the soybean
production, especially under the so-called “sowing pools”. The sowing pool is a financial
mechanism for soybean production. It brings together a landowner, a contractor and a
technician. The economic revenue from agribusiness has been higher than in any other
industrial and financial activity. The sowing pools favour agrarian capital concentration
under the hands of large company contractors that lease the land to small and medium
landholders. The relationship between land tenure and environmental degradation is
contested. It seems evident in the extra-Pampean region (Manuel-Navarrete et al, 2008).
3.4. Future scenarios of the production system
In this section, we analyze the major trends for the Argentinean production system. Besides
soybean seed and flour feeding the ever increasing international meat market, Argentina is
also one of the greatest exporters of vegetable-oil, leading exports for soybean and
sunflower derivatives. It is considered to have some of the most efficient and
technologically advanced milling equipment for vegetable oil in the world, producing more
than 154.000 tones per day. Strategic geographical location of the milling infrastructures at
big harbours facilitates the export of 95% of this oil production (Lamers, 2006; Pengue,
2006). The sector is characterised by an industrial oligopoly, as 85% of the installed milling
potential is processed by 6 companies.
Accordingly, Argentina is potentially a prime supplier for the growing biofuel industry, both
for biodiesel (the raw material of which is vegetable oil from soybeans, sunflowers or
canola) or bioethanol (derived from alcohols obtained from maize or sugarcane). For
103
instance, the EU goal of 5,75% biofuel blending by 2010 would require a fivefold increase
in EU production, posing a great demand for imported raw materials (APPA, 2007; Dufey,
2006; Russi, 2008). Future projections foresee biofuel production taking place mostly in
developing countries, with cheap land and labour and where climatic conditions are more
favourable (Wicke, 2006).
Moreover, with internal demand likely to increase due to the Argentinean “Biofuels Act”
(Law 26.093), requiring 5% biodiesel content in petroleum derivates by 2010, domestic
demand is estimated to reach 600.000 tonnes/year for biodiesel. At the present production
rates, it is calculated that 7.3% of the soybean surface is needed for supplying this annual
target of production in the first year of implementation (3,5 million tonnes of soy beans).
Therefore, Argentina could not become diesel self-sufficient through soybean derived from
biodiesel except if the cultivation surface is significantly increased. Although Argentinean
authorities remain confident of the opportunities to increase soy yields, most of the large
soybean growers, including Argentina, USA or Brazil, have apparently already optimized
their production, as it has experimented little growth in last years (Johnston, 2006).
International demand could press further for the expansion of the agricultural frontier. In the
case of ethanol, Argentina is also one of the world’s lowest cost producers of maize.
Domestic demand is estimated at around 160.000 tonnes/year for bioethanol.
4. “With the GR soybean we got to paradise… but it lasted so little…”: The
emergence, impacts and responses to GR johnsongrass
4.1. Environmental history of johnsongrass in Argentina
Johnsongrass was introduced in Argentina at the beginning of the 20th century. Although it
was already considered strongly invasive, the Ministry of Agriculture proposed it as a highyield forage suitable for poor soil conditions (Estrada, 1907; Vallejo, 1913). Agronomists in
Tucumán (north of Argentina) were soon alerted by its rapid, invasive potential and
recommended its prohibition (Cross, 1926, 1927). By this time, land abandonment,
decrease of land prices and high productivity losses were also documented (Schultz, 1931),
which lead to describing the johnsongrass invasion as “the farmers’ terror” (Cross, 1934a).
In 1930 it was considered a pest for agriculture in the humid and semiarid regions of the
country. Although sales and imports of johnsongrass seeds and rhizomes were forbidden
(de Rocha, 1930), its trade was not halted (Cross, 1934b). In 1951, sowing and
multiplication were banned at the national level.
Despite these policies, by early 1980’s some estimates assert that 6 million ha of the rolling
pampas were infested (Leguizamon, 1983), while other estimates are as high as 15 million
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ha, with over 94.000 affected producers (Ladelfa et al., 1983). Before that time, control
techniques were either mechanical or manual, and in fact, cultivars coexisted with a wide,
polyespecific weed population. During the 1970s, a series of herbicides (e.g. MSMA or
Trifluralina) were introduced in the Argentinean market, and johnsongrass control
techniques combined mechanical and chemical strategies. By 1977 the so-called “Plan
Piloto de Salto” was launched by the National Institute of Stockbreeding Technology (INTA)
in the province of Buenos Aires. Its main objective was to progressively recuperate the
infested fields through implementing management techniques based on rotation practices,
the use of winter cover crops and mechanical and/or chemical measures (Rossi and
Cascardo, 1981). A series of empirical field trials were conducted to evaluate the efficiency
of these techniques, and to improve background knowledge on the dynamics of
johnsongrass (e.g. reproduction patterns, susceptibility to the temperature or to
fertilisation). Costs of different management alternatives over three-year rotation periods
varied between 20 and 45% of the total production costs (Cascardo and Rossi, 1979). At
that time, MSMA, Dalapon, Pirifenop and glyphosate were recommended (Barletta et al.,
1977). In the 1980s, the range and use of herbicides increased, both for pre-sowing
herbicides and graminicides.
These methods were followed by the GR soybeans introduction, and a constant use of
glyphosate apparently succeeded in controlling the weed. As said by an informant:
“glyphosate becomes the essential tool for fallow-land and soybean cultivation in 1996.
Johnsongrass practically disappeared from the rolling Pampas, except from patches on not
cultivated land… but not in agricultural land”.
The illusion of invincibility of glyphosate to control weed species shifted emphasis toward
chemical control at the expense of integrated weed management and the weed control
experts groups.The soybean herbicide market was contracted. As stated by an interviewed
engineer: “traditional products reduced their market presence. It is difficult to get any other
product. All what is not glyphosate has to be ordered”. Others have noted that the rate of
innovation in developing new herbicides has declined as agrochemical companies have
acquired seed companies to produce herbicide-resistant crops. Moreover, farmers’
willingness to use other alternatives or explore weed thresholds has been reduced after GR
crops adoption (Martinez-Ghersa et al., 2003; Rüegg et al., 2007). When surveying
Argentinean farmers, White (1997) found that among the main motivations for adopting GR
technology were better and more simplified weed control in the short term besides a
decreased expenditure in herbicides, labour and fuel.
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The adoption of herbicide technology in the 1960s, and glyphosate later, has been
accompanied by conceptual changes in the definition of weeds and their role within the
production system. For some actors, weeds may be considered an intrinsic limiting factor in
the agriculturisation process, the economic impact of which must be minimised; while for
others they are an “enemy” to be defeated when dominating nature. Amongst frequently
used terms in weed management are “control”, “eradication”, “fight”, “defeat”, “wipe out”,
“weapon” and the use of medical metaphors and hygienic terms such as “clean” to refer to
a chemically sterilized field. All these were identified in the interviews and are examples of
the mindset described above.
Glyphosate consumption became the centre of the weed management strategy, increasing
sharply from 1 million litres in 1991 to 180 millions in 2007. Although glyphosate is
considered a low environmental risk herbicide by some authors (Duke, 2005; Duke and
Powles, 2008), others have warned that “the substitution of traditional crops [in Argentina]
by GR soy in the past decades represents a large scale, unplanned, ecological experiment,
whose consequences for natural ecosystems, and aquatic environments in particular, are
poorly understood” (Pérez et al., 2007; see also Altieri (2004); Casabé et al. (2007); Relyea
(2005)). For a discussion on human health impacts derived from glyphosate utilization in
Argentina refer to Bradford (2004).
Initially after the adoption of GM soybeans the increased use of glyphosate was
accompanied by a decrease in the consumption of other herbicides such as atrazine or 2,4D. However, during the last campaigns, the consumption of these herbicides has risen
again (see Figure 1). These results coincide with Bonny (2008), who concludes after
assessing soybean cropping in US that the total amount of herbicides applied per ha
decreased initially between 1996 and 2001, but tended to rise afterwards.
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Figure 1. Evolution in glyphosate, atrazine and 2,4-D consumption in Argentina, 1996-2006.
180
160
million liters
140
120
Glyphosate
100
Atrazine
80
2,4 D
60
40
20
20
05
20
03
20
01
19
99
19
97
19
95
19
93
19
91
0
Source: Statistics have been compiled from Pengue (2000) and CASAFE (Cámara de
Sanidad y Fertilizantes de la República Argentina (2007)
4.2. The emergence of GR johnsongrass biotypes in Argentina
Farmers from the province of Salta, northern Argentina, detected the appearance of a GR
johnsongrass biotype in 2002. Samples were taken and brought to the USA by Monsanto in
2003. However resistance was only reported indirectly to the National Agrifood Health and
Quality Service (SENASA) during a congress presentation offered by Monsanto in
December 2005 (Passalacqua, 2007). The Tucumán University then confirmed it on the
same year. The time lag between early detection and confirmation is commented by an
affected producer: “We were losing time […] The message from all scientists, not only
Monsanto’s, is that it was practically impossible to acquire resistance to glyphosate due to
its site of action. Now this has changed”. At that time, different authors already warned of
the potential intense selection pressure for weed resistance by genetically modified
herbicide-resistant crops, that in turn jeopardize the future use of glyphosate (Owen and
Zelaya, 2005; Powles, 2003; Reddy, 2001; Shaner, 2000; Snow et al., 2005; Tiedje et al.,
1989; Wolfenbarger and Phifer, 2000). By 2006, eight GR weeds were already confirmed
worldwide; three cases were associated with the use of herbicide-resistant crops (Cerdeira
and Duke, 2006).
Although the first cases emerged in the Salta province (Valverde and Gressel, 2006), GR
johnsongrass was reported in 2007 in all agroproductive provinces in northern Argentina
and also in some central provinces, such as Santa Fe. It is estimated that the affected area
107
in the north of Argentina covers 10.000 ha (Passalacqua, 2007), and our informants
expected that the potential affected area might reach 100.000 ha. Figure 2, shows the GR
johnsongrass’ reported areas.
Figure 2: Areas with confirmed GR johnsongrass in the North and Centre of Argentina
(2007)
4.3. Potential impacts associated with GR johnsongrass
Involved actors analysed differently the recent appearance and spread of the GR
johnsongrass in Argentina and its implications. Most of these impacts are discussed in
relation to the effects already registered in the 1930s. Again, increases in the control costs
were reported in the affected fields. Implications for farmers are discussed by some
informants as related to their capability to adapt to the new conditions: “this will sieve the
producers. Those who are attentive will succeed; those who clean their machinery, etc…
will have everything under control. The problem is with those who are still confident to
manage with glyphosate. They will have problems. Other types of resistance will occur. This
is the big topic”. A major challenge is to replace an extremely simple weed management,
based on a “fantastic technology that makes Argentina competitive worldwide” (interview,
agronomist), by a more complex integrated weed management.
Yield loss and incremental control costs have induced changes in the lease regime (both in
the price and length of the contract), as a consequence of the depreciation of the value of
affected lands. Some stakeholders have also discussed the increase in the control costs as
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an added driver for the need to scale-up the economic activity, which will cause the
abandonment of small and medium-sized farms or further pushing the agricultural frontier to
maintain the margin of benefits. The process is similar to the one discussed by Kloppenburg
(1988: 35) regarding technology adoption, in which farmers who fail to adapt to new
technologies are continuously put out of business and their operations are absorbed by
more successful producers, ensuring a secure and expanding market for the technology
supplier.
The implementation of johnsongrass’ management measures can be related to a series of
socio-economic and environmental impacts. Regarding control strategies, agronomists in
the affected areas suggest to return to more severe toxic, old herbicidal ingredients such as
MSMA, 2,4 D and combinations of these with glyphosate in a new burn-down strategy in the
no-tillage GR system, or by using rucksack equipments for a plant by plant control. Other
practices have been prescribed for the containment of the GR johnsongrass, inducing
further economic costs such as cleaning of agricultural machinery, or the potential rise in
seeds’ costs, due to purity standards. The technology advantage found by farmers in the
implementation of the GR soybean in terms of cost reduction could be lost. Returning to old
herbicides increases control costs drastically, leaving middle-sized farms in a dangerous
situation. The increased use of MSMA or 2-4-D, with higher potential environmental and
health impacts than glyphosate, or the promotion and introduction of other herbicideresistant genetically modified seeds, will be discussed in next section.
4.4. Management responses to GR johnsongrass
Management strategies can be divided into proactive or reactive. However, this
classification depends also on the stage of invasion at the decision-point. We will now
review the different classes of responses and their implementation in Argentina (see Table
1).
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Table 1: Responses implemented in Argentina for the management of GR johnsongrass
Before GR johnsongrass
emergence
Prevention
-Early detection
--
After GR johnsongrass emergence
Prevention
-Early detection
A communication system for detection of GR johnsongrass
was implemented
Assessment
SENASA hires an external consultancy in June 2006 for
evaluating the scale of the problem and to propose
management recommendations.
A National Advisory Board for Resistant Pests (CONAPRE)
was launched in November 2006
Two workshops were held in September 2006 and June
2007, gathering weed experts, producers and policy-makers.
Containment
Informative campaign launched by the Experimental
Agroindustrial Station Obispo Colombres and ProGrano in
2007.
Control
Chemical control has been tested with several herbicides
(MSMA, 2-4-D, halaxifop metil, cletodim, as well as
graminicides applied locally) in soy fields.
Sources: ASAPROVE, 2006; Olea et al., 2007; Passalacqua (2007); SENASA (2007); field
work interviews.
Preventive measures. In a glyphosate-based production system, preventive measures
would mean to search for more diversified production, requiring a sophistication of the
system as well as improving management knowledge and time. In a scenario of economic
and technological optimism, no preventive measures were taken before the emergence of
GR johnsongrass, nor in unaffected areas once it had already appeared in other areas of
the country.
Reactive measures. Once GR johnsongrass appeared, reactive measures were
implemented. These can be divided into assessment, early detection, containment or
control measures (GISP, 2007). Eradication is not discussed as an option by stakeholders.
It is worth mentioning that the main agricultural extensionists in charge of farmers’
assessment, especially in the north of Argentina, are agronomic engineers representing
private, mixed companies or private NGOs such as ProGrano (Northern Grain Producers
Association) or AAPRESID (Argentinean Association of Non-Tillage Producers).
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Assessment can be considered the first step of a management programme. It involves
weighing the different elements within the current situation (extent of the area to be
managed, determining the management goal or the stakeholders involved). Different
actions were taken for assessing the state of affairs in Argentina during 2006. These are
led by the proposals of an external consultancy hired by the SENASA (Valverde and
Gressel, 2006). Its main recommendations include preventive measures such as putting in
place early detection systems (visual and satellital), designing a public information
campaign, promoting rotation schemes for avoiding or delaying the appearance of
resistance, implementing measures for containment and promoting basic research and
investigation on chemical control. Two workshops were held in September 2006 and June
2007 presenting and following-up this assessment, including weed experts, producers and
policy-makers. A National Advisory Board for Resistant Pests (CONAPRE) was launched in
November 2006 with coordination tasks (SENASA Resolution 470/2007). Its functions are
similar to the ones of the first Board against Weeds created in 1936 to manage the
common johnsongrass.
Early detection. SENASA has put in operation a centralised system for reporting suspected
cases of GR johnsongrass. However, there has been a low number of reports. This can be
linked, on the one hand, to the type of impacts that GR johnsongrass is inducing and the
uncertainty on the policy consequences. It can be illustrated by some excerpts from
interviews: “the reports are few because people are afraid of reporting because of getting
lower rents and because they do not know how the authority is going to react, because
their fields could be closed down,…”; “If a farmer has or detects GR johnsongrass, will he
say it? Will he identify the problem in his field? He doesn’t know what could happen
because legislation is not clear: the field would be closed down? Would production be
retained? What would be the cost of machinery for him? Ignorance on legislation can be a
limiting factor to confront the problem […] While the problem is in the fences, it is
everybody’s problem, or others’ problems; but when the problem is in his field, I do not
know how he will react”. On the other hand, the perception of the technology and the
farmer itself are contested: “in general there still are […] some qualms to accept the
problems. I do the comparison with some parents that deny that their son is different. They
deny the problem. But it is serious. And what we have detected is that producers are
reluctant to report the problem, to say it, to confess it. […] Probably there are many more
cases that the ones we have detected”. This situation produces a lack of data regarding the
scale of the problem, but it also makes it difficult to contain it.
Containment is aimed to restrict the spread of the GR johnsongrass and to enclose the
population in a defined geographical range. Again, early detection and monitoring will be a
111
critical feature. In 2007 the Experimental Agroindustrial Station Obispo Colombres
launched an information campaign on the procedures for avoiding dispersion, especially
those related to machinery hygienic measures (agricultural engineer, interview). The
Agroindustrial Station is a joint public-private venture. It included also information
dissemination through radio and TV spots, newspapers and posters.
Control measures. Much of the effort has been directed to control measures. The objective
of these is to reduce the density and abundance of the GR johnsongrass below a pre-set
acceptable threshold. Control methods are usually classified as mechanical, chemical,
biological, habitat management or integrated pest management (GISP, 2007). In the case
of johnsongrass in Argentina, chemical methods are mainly promoted. Research is led by
the main herbicide companies, in coordination with private NGOs (such as PROGRANO)
who are in charge of developing the resulting strategies. In the last years, no novel
herbicides with new modes of action have been introduced in the market and no quick
developments are expected (Green et al., 2008). For instance, the last compound with a
new mode of action –HPPD herbicide- was commercialized in Europe in 1991 (Rüegg et
al., 2006). Therefore, strategies to control GR johnsongrass rely on already commercialized
herbicides, either directly or through the development of novel GM crops with new
herbicide-resistance characteristics, or on varieties resistant to even higher doses of
glyphosate (Service, 2007).
Informants have stated that trials are conducted in Argentina aiming to control GR
johnsongrass in soy fields. At the moment, the resistance mechanism is still unknown, and
therefore, research for chemical control is done under a trial and error basis. These
methods include the use of glyphosate mixed with MSMA, 2-4-D, cletodim or haloxifop,
post-emergence graminicides (e.g. Micosulfuron, Imazethapir) or for use in fallow fields
(atrazine, paraquat, 2,4 D, metsulfuron metil). They do not fully cover the complete
spectrum abandoned by glyphosate, while increasing the management costs of the fields.
For instance, it has been estimated that the cost of controlling GR johnsongrass with a
mixture of 2,4 D and glyphosate increases production costs by 19,3% per hectare (Muñoz,
2006), apart from increased biological and human health risks. The price of the two
herbicides has risen steadily since then. Other authors estimated that controlling a
glyphosate resistant weed could double the herbicide expenditure per hectare in Argentina
(Tuesca et al., 2007). Moreover, herbicide mixtures can inadvertently accelerate the
evolution of multiple resistance if they fail to meet basic criteria for resistance management
or are applied repeatedly (Beckie, 2006). However, weed control specialists remain
confident: “in spite of complexity, it is possible to face and win the battle to this problem”
(interview, weed management expert). On July 2007, a commercial maize variety, stacked
112
with RoundUp resistance (i.e. GR) and Bt was released in Argentina. Rotation with RR
sugarcane was also suggested by some companies. Season by season, crop by crop
including fallow fields, glyphosate seems to be the unique alternative.
New GM developments in the international scenario. Biotech companies have recently
launched novel GM crops with new herbicide-resistance as a response to the appearance
of GR weeds (Green et al., 2008). For instance, in September 2007 DuPont and Nidera
announced the glyphosate and sulfonyureas-resistant soy varieties Finesse-Sts (Ciuci,
2007). In their presentation in Argentina, the representatives of Nidera soy varieties stated:
“for growing towards the future, it is required to present solutions to new problems, such as
tolerance or resistance to glyphosate”. Furthermore, DuPont has developed the so-called
GAT/HRA technology, which combines glyphosate and ALS resistance (including
sulfonylurea and imidazolinone herbicides) for soy and maize along with other crops
(Green, 2007). The technology has been commercially applied by Pioneer Hi-Bred and
DuPont Crop Protection in the so-called Optimum-GAT trait, with sales anticipated within
2010-2012 (Pioneer, 2007). To date, 95 species have been reported to be ALS-resistant,
including johnsongrass (Heap, 2007).
In May 2007 Monsanto and the University of Nebraska also presented the Dicamba
resistant technology in the Science magazine, as a strategy to extend glyphosate effective
lifetime and preserve no-till or reduced-till planting practices (Behrens et al., 2007). The
technology could also be applied to soy, tobacco and cotton. Dicamba is a synthetic auxine
considered as a herbicide with low toxicity, but with residuality. In a study conducted by
Peterson and Hulting (2007), Dicamba was found to have higher relative risks than
glyphosate for five of the nine ecological receptors evaluated. In an estimation of relative
ecological risks of herbicide active ingredients made by Duke and Cerdeira (2005),
Dicamba was classified as having 220 greater risks compared to glyphosate. Kochia
scoparia, Stachys arvensis and Galeopsis tetrahit weeds have already been reported as
Dicamba-resistant (Heap, 2007). The first two are present in Argentina. Dicamba is a
selective systemic herbicide for broadleaf weeds. It is recommended that Dicamba
resistance genes be used “stacked” with glyphosate resistance genes, to allow farmers to
alternate between the two herbicides or mix them.
In turn, Dow AgroScience has recently presented its progress in the development of maize
and soy varieties resistant to 2,4 D, “fop” grass herbicides and insects (Dow AgroSciences,
2007a). Although offered as a herbicide with few resistant weed populations, resistance to
2,4 D has been registered in 16 weed plant species. First records already date from 1952
(Heap, 2007). The company expects to commercialize the GM maize in 2012/3 or 2014 for
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soybeans. As stated in a company press release, this technology comes after foreseeing
GR weeds, so the purpose is that it can be coupled with current available herbicide tolerant
traits.
In maize production, Dow and Monsanto companies have recently presented a genetically
modified maize, in which eight genes are stacked for herbicide tolerance and insectprotection. It has been published as the “‘all-in-one’ answer to demands for a
comprehensive yield protection from weed and insect traits” (Dow AgroSciences, 2007b).
The new GM crop –SmartStax- is expected to be commercialised in the U.S. by the end of
the decade, combining glyphosate and ammonium glufosinate resistance with corn worm
protection.
Finally, research has also been conducted to obtain glyphosate-tolerant maize with higher
resistance to the herbicide. Athenix Corp, for instance, expects to submit a regulatory
package by the end of 2008 in the USA for maize capable of withstanding at least eight
times the standard field rate of glyphosate recommended, providing “the highest levels of
glyphosate tolerance available” (Athenix Corp., 2007). Field trials for soybean are about to
begin.
5. Discussion and concluding remarks
In this section we analyse the responses for the management of GR johnsongrass in
Argentina and their implications. The process of agriculturalisation in the rolling Pampas
that began in the mid 1970s, and the subsequent pampeanisation of extra-Pampean
regions have meant a strong intensification of the productive system. This was possible
through the representation of Argentina as an “almost unlimited” land (Garavaglia, 1989),
metaphorically described as a desert that could be transformed for production through the
submission of the environment (Pengue, 2003) and the local populations (Navarro Floria,
1999). Although these material and mental processes started in Argentina long ago, they
played a central role in the massive diffusion of soybean production in recent years, which
was also supported by a series of institutions (e.g. increasing offers of credits for
investments in phytosanitary control, especially herbicides during the 1970s (León et al.,
1987)) and innovations in land tenure arrangements. With the introduction of the GR
technology package, intensification became the sole productive alternative under the
efficiency paradigm (Pengue, 2004).
In these processes, weed management was identified as the bottleneck for the production
model, and great economic and labour efforts were devoted to weed control. As the
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example of johnsongrass illustrates, the “magic bullet” approach was favoured. As
discussed by Scott (2005), this term was firstly coined in biomedicine for referring to a
model centred in the agent as “the” cause of disease. In integrated pest management
literature it is argued that the approach has been similarly applied to weed management
(Buhler et al., 2000; Hoy, 1998; Neve, 2007; Scott, 2005). Synthetic herbicides are aimed to
react once the pest has appeared. However, this is usually done without analysing
ecological and evolutionary dynamics of the site, as well as the social conditions of
application (ibid). This approach has also been discussed in the context of herbicideresistant GMOs (Altieri, 2005; Altieri and Rosset, 1999; Appleby, 2005; McAfee, 2003;
Mueller-Schaerer, 2002).
As a consequence of the approach, all pests become targets per se (Prokopy, 1987). In that
sense, weed control has been equated to weed-free, and field appearance becomes then a
major motivation for weed control (Jones and Medd, 2000). This notion could also partly
explain the increasing glyphosate consumption in Argentina (besides the increment of area
sown with soybeans). As single post-emergence application is insufficient to reach total
weed control, repeated applications are needed. This approach has been metaphorically
identified by critics of GM technology as the “green concrete”, as no other plant, except the
crop, can grow (Levidow and Carr, 2007). However, from an economic point of view, the
optimum level of weed control may be less than 100% unless if it is assumed that the crop
is infinitely valuable or control costs are zero (Martínez-Ghersa et al., 2003).
The golden moment for soybean production has reinforced this approach. In 2007 and until
July 2008, the historical records for soybean yield and price were reached, in part due to the
sharply escalating biofuels demand, giving support to the technological optimism driving
agricultural shifts in Argentina. However, the GR technology may be judged as a
technological lock-in, discouraging the adoption of weed-resistance preventive measures
and unable to cope with GR weeds. As this case study shows, Argentinean farmers were
deskilled at an extraordinary speed, becoming weed “illiterates” while forgetting early
attempts to integrate pest management. In that sense, literature on path dependency has
pointed out the fact that dynamic increasing returns imply that, once chosen, a technology
path has the tendency to be stretched. Results from our case study coincide with the
findings of Cowan and Gunley (1996), who have argued that three aspects determine the
low rate of adoption of integrated pest management as an alternative to chemical
management: a) initial low payoff for this technology, as the necessary knowledge is not
available; b) uncertainty on the outcomes; and c) “coordination” problems among farmers, in
terms of the effects that neighbouring practices have on their own fields. All these factors
were fostered in this case by the “glyphosate dependence”.
115
Despite these collective facts, recommendations generally assume that the management
strategy of an individual farmer shapes the future incidence of herbicide-resistant weeds in
his/her fields (see e.g. Dill et al., 2008). However, as weeds act as a common factor (Regev
et al., 1976), appearance of herbicide-resistant weeds, or their control, depend on the
weakest point of the system, i.e. the least effective farmer. The scale would depend on the
potential range of spread by the weed (Perrings et al., 2002). As a result, from an individual
farmer’s point of view, investing in preventing the emergence of herbicide-resistant
populations in a field, might not capture the future benefits of having avoided the costs of
managing the herbicide-resistant weed (Llewellyn and Allen, 2006), especially in a situation
of annual lease regimes. If the necessary cooperation between farmers is not enhanced,
only adaptation or reactive measures can be taken. In a highly competitive context,
preventive management needs an institutional setting that establishes regulations and
responsibilities.
From a societal point of view, reactive measures would favour those with the resources to
adapt to the fact while on the other hand, risks are transferred to society and the
environment (Perrings, 2005). Mueller et al. (2005) argue that glyphosate in conjunction
with GR crops allows farmers to manage more hectares and increase overall productivity
and profitability. However, it raises equity concerns, in particularly those related to access
to resources and finances. For instance, from the analysis on the emergence of GR
johnsongrass in Argentina, it can be argued that small and medium-sized farmers are those
left in worse positions to overcome the situation. Having small plots makes them more
vulnerable to the neighbouring effect. Moreover, the economic structure disincentives the
farmers to invest in uncertain alternative practices, which require long-term planning or
restructuring time. The environmental history of johnsongrass in Argentina shows that when
it was not possible to control this weed, farmers directly abandoned the land or sold it. At
the same time, herbicide companies have found a new market niche.
As a result of the intensification of the agricultural model, the appearance of GR
johnsongrass becomes a driver for further concentration while opening new markets for
technology suppliers. In the case of glyphosate, whose patent has expired, gene stacking is
particularly profitable as it increases the value of the seeds by including two or more
technological fees rather than just one (Bonny, 2008). Proposed strategies to deal with the
situation are focused on reactive measures, potentially causing a series of externalities.
Impacts of the potential increment of herbicide use on human health and the environment
should be further analysed. The chemical option is again the keystone of the strategy.
Since new herbicide developments seem to be in a deadlock, existing options within the
116
paradigm go to add one of the available herbicides to the glyphosate technological
package, either directly or by massively incorporating the technology through the seed. In
that sense, although aiming to overcome the effects of the “previous” GR crop generation,
this “new generation” of GM crops strengthens the same paradigm. As a new magic bullet,
this process may represent a new form of herbicide intensification: the “transgenic
treadmill”.
Acknowledgements
This study is part of the EU-funded research project ALARM (Assessing LArge-scale
environmental Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods. We are grateful to James Klepek,
Nicolas Kosoy, Joan Martinez Alier and Roger Strand for their comments on early versions
of the article. We are particularly grateful to all the stakeholders who collaborated in the
research process.
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126
Acknowledgements / Agraïments
Mentre estava fent aquesta tesis, he tingut la immensa sort de comptar amb l’ajuda i el suport
de moltíssima gent.
A banda dels agraïments “individualitzats” que es troben a cadascun dels articles, en primer
lloc, voldria agrair a Joan Martínez Alier la confiança que des de fa ja molts anys sempre ha
dipositat amb mi, i amb el meu treball. D’ell vaig aprendre, ja fa temps, quan començava la
meva llicenciatura en Ciències Ambientals, què és l’economia ecològica i l’ecologia política i
d’ell continuo aprenent cada dia.
Igualment, vull agrair al meu co-director, Roger Strand, el seu suport. Roger sempre ha estat
sempre constructiu en les seves crítiques i generós en la seva dedicació. Així mateix,
m’agradaria agrair-li, un cop més, les seves nombroses acollides a Noruega, gràcies a les
quals he pogut trobar l’ambient necessari (tan intel·lectual com físic) per poder acabar aquesta
tesis. M’agradaria aprofitar aquesta oportunitat per donar les gràcies a la Kamilla, Fern, Kjetil i
Ana a Bergen, que em van recolzar especialment durant els mesos que vaig passar allí.
També crucial ha estat la meva col·laboració durant els darrers quatre anys amb les meves
amigues i companyes al projecte ALARM Iliana Monterroso i Beatriz Rodríguez-Labajos, amb
qui he tingut el plaer de treballar i viatjar durant tot aquest temps. La realització d’aquest treball
tesis no hagués estat possible sense elles.
Així mateix, han estat de gran utilitat les discussions i treball conjunt realitzat amb la resta de
membres del grup socio-econòmic de l’ALARM. Vull donar gràcies especialment a Walter
Pengue a Argentina, i també a totes aquelles persones i col·lectius que han participat, aportant
el seu coneixement i visions als diferents conflictes ambientals que s’estudien durant aquesta
tesis. Sense elles aquesta tesis no tindria sentit.
També voldria agrair als meus companys i companyes de l’ICTA el seu afecte i encoratjament
durant tot aquest temps; així com a les meves amigues i amics (no els anomeno per por de
deixar-me’n algun/a). M’agradaria fer una menció especial a la gent de Cal Cases. He tingut
també la sort de comptar amb el meu amic Nicolas Kosoy en nombroses ocasions, per discutir
els articles o ajudar-me amb les correccions de l’anglès.
A la meva mare, la meva germana vull donar-lis un agraïment especial, per la seva ajuda i
suport incondicional. El meu darrer agraïment és pel Xavi, pel seu encoratjament continu durant
tot aquest temps, pel seu carinyo, per les llargues discussions... i per la seva paciència. A ells
tres, i als futurs “projectes” que tenim en comú, vull dedicar-lis aquesta tesis.
127
Frontcover pictures sources are:
1. UAB-ALARM team
2. UAB-ALARM team
3. Juan Felipe Carrasco
4. www.lanacion.com.ar
Back cover:
1. www.sealinggreen.com
2. www.indymedia.ie
3. Rosa Binimelis
4. UAB-ALARM team
5. Rosa Binimelis
128