Document 1864377

PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies
Dear readers,
Prayas - An international journal of multidisciplinary studies is the first open access, international, peerreviewed, annual research journal of multidisciplinary studies from Tripura intended for Professors,
academicians, scholars, professionals and students engaged in research. The main purpose of the journal will
be to encourage research publication and provide an international forum to disseminate knowledge. The
initiative is taken by the Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, Tripura.
As the Editor-in-chief of the journal, I accepted the challenge and put in my utmost efforts to make the
journal possible. I thank my Principal, Dr. S. Rakshit and other colleagues, who had shown immense faith in
me always encouraged me to complete the project. I acknowledge other members of the Literary Committee,
who gave me full freedom to shape the journal as I could. Finally, I would like to thank the all eminent
advisers and referees, who responded to my request, encouraged me and bore the strain to pick the right
manuscripts and help the authors to edit them, whenever necessary. Without the support of each and every
one associated the journal would have been impossible.
I congratulate the authors whose papers are eventually selected by the blind referees and I am deeply sorry
to those whose papers we couldn’t include.
I hope in near future Prayas would attain high impact factor and good number of citations. Kindly wish the
journal success.
Let the spirit never die…
Let it consistently dive and fly…
With no sign whatever of any sigh…
In the overhanging, looming sky…
With gloomy clouds passing by...
Basu Maan Daas
Editor-in-chief
Prayas - An international journal of multidisciplinary studies
Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry
Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, Tripura
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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies
A
LONGITUDINAL
STUDY
ON
GENERAL
INTELECTUAL
DEVELOPMENT
AND
ITS
RELATIONSHIP WITH SELECTED MOTOR PERFORMANCE VARIABLES THROUGH 10 TO 13
YEAR OLD BOYS
S. Chaterjee, Page 4
ANALYTICAL STUDY ON THE STATUS OF HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS
COMPONENTS OF DIFFERENT AGE CATEGORIES AMONG SEMINARY STUDENTS
A.Sinha & M. Saini, Page 12
EFFECT OF OXYGEN VACANCY ON THE ROOM TEMPERATURE MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF
MANGANESE DOPED NANOCRYSTALLINE TITANIA
S. Paul, A. Choudhury & G. A. Ahmed, Page 20
IMPACT OF PERCEIVED DEPRIVATION ON DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDE TOWARDS
PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF THE SCHOOL GOING ADOLESCENTS
S. Chatterjee, M. C. Ghosh, S. Adhikari Page 26
INVESTIGATION OF VIBRATIONAL SPECTRA OF BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE (C60) USING
THE LIE ALGEBRA
R. Das, N. K. Sarkar & R. Bhattacharjee, Page 27
MIGRATION - CROSS BORDER STUDENT MOBILITY
S. Ahmed & A. L. Barman, Page 38
PHONEME SEGMENTATION AND CLUSTERING OF ASSAMESE AND BODO LANGUAGES
USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
C. Saloi, Page 45
SAMUEL MENASHE, “THE NEGLECTED MASTER”
S. Kopuri, Page 54
STRUCTURAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF CuO MODIFIED SnO2 NANOPARTICLES
N. Kumari, Page 59
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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies
STUDY OF POLARIZATION PROPERTIES OF COMET BRADFIELD 1987 P1 USING AGGREGATE
DUST MODEL AND ITS COMPARISON WITH COMET NEAT C/2001 Q4
S. R. Das, D. Paul & H. S. Das, Page 66
SUPRAMOLECULAR CHEMISTRY AND ITS APPLICATION
S. Adhikari A. Das & B. M. Daas, Page 71
THE BOOK FOR ALL AND NONE - FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE’S THUS SPOKE ZARATHRUSTRA
Z. Mitra, Page 78
THEME OF DISPLACEMENT AND LONELINESS: A STUDY OF JHUMPA LAHIRI’S INTERPRETER
OF MALADIES
M. M. Das Biswas, Page 84
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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies
A LONGITUDINAL STUDY ON GENERAL INTELECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS
RELATIONSHIP WITH SELECTED MOTOR PERFORMANCE VARIABLES THROUGH 10 TO
13 YEAR OLD BOYS.
Saikot Chatterjee*, Alok K Banerjee** & Samir Ranjan Adhikary***
* Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education, University of Kalyani, W.B, India.
** Former Vice-Chancellor, University of Kalyani, W.B, India.
*** Assistant Professor, Sachidananda College of Education, Simurali, W.B, India.
Corresponding author: Saikot Chatterjee
Abstract
The relationship between physical activity and intelligence has often been a matter of great debate in sport
psychology circles. Though there is existence of numerous studies conducted with the view of establishing a
relationship between intelligence and sporting performance, it is somehow felt by the author that
investigations related to the development of intelligence through a few years and its relationship with motor
tasks during the very crucial period of growth and development is truly rare. The child growth and
development includes an interrelated expression of physical, cognitive, social psychological size of the
whole body or any of its parts. Since the earliest times intellectualism (the pure mental processed and
athleticism the physical activities involving strength speed etc.) have been though erroneously considered as
two poles widely apart. Hence the author premeditated to conduct a longitudinal study through 10 to 13
years to locate the normal intellectual development of boys and enumerate its relationship with the physical
fitness variables. The researcher selected 30 boys randomly from a school and conducted the AAHPERD
Youth Fitness test battery as the measure of Physical Fitness and Revan’s test of Progressive Matrices for
assessment of intelligence. For data analysis he computed descriptive statistics and paired sample t test. On
the basis of data analysis the author concluded that intelligence was found to develop significantly through
the ages of growth and development incorporated but there was no significant correlation between
intelligence and the selected motor performance or physical fitness variables.
Key words: Longitudinal, Intellectual Development, Motor Performance.
*******
Background
The child growth and development includes an interrelated expression of physical, cognitive, social
psychological size of the whole body or any of its parts. Since the earliest times intellectualism (the pure
mental processed and athleticism the physical activities involving strength speed etc.) have been though
erroneously considered as two poles widely apart. The scenario is fast changing because intelligence is being
viewed not simply as augment of non-observation cerebral function but a vast and multifaceted spectrum of
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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies
cognitive effective and motor processes and activities that are impeccably interrelated and unbelievably
inter-dependant. What use in the individual who thinks correctly, but acts clumsily and vice versa. Research
in psychophysiology indicates that neurons and nerves which are the basic instrument of intelligence –
derive their verve and vigor from the action potential of the muscles which are the instruments of observable
and non-observation activity of the organism. The more efficiently are the muscles exercised the more
efficiently do they help in nourishing other parts of the body, more specifically the brain and the nervous
system, which cause intelligent behaviour.
The relationship between physical activity and intelligence has often been a matter of great debate in sport
psychology circles. Exercise athletic sports etc. are complex skilled activities. All of them derive the
inspiration and strength from the motor abilities (inherited or acquired), which develop as the child proceeds
chronologically. Since all skilled behaviour is intelligent behaviour, relationship between athleticism and
intelligence cannot be denied.
There are numerous studies wherein the relationship between physical dynamics (exercise and sport) and
intellectual attributes (intelligence I. Q. scores) has either been reported very low or no existent at all. As
explained above much has been depended upon the variables investigated into and the methodologies used.
Though there is existence of numerous studies conducted with the view of establishing a relationship
between intelligence and sporting performance, it is somehow felt by the author that investigations related to
the development of intelligence through a few years and its relationship with motor tasks during the very
crucial period of growth and development is truly rare. The researcher with an innovative mental makeup
strived to conduct a study in a longitudinal fashion to locate the gradual development pattern of intelligence
and draw relationship between selected motor performance variables through 10 to 13 years aged boys.
Methodology
Participants of the present study were selected from a High School (Dist. Burdwan, West Bengal). There
were 150 students of this age group (10½ years) in that school’s student population of 2000. All the students
of the required age group were asked to take part as a volunteer in the study. On a specified day all the
students were present in the play ground and they were asked to collect a number ranging from 1–150 by
drawing lots. Those students getting the numbers 1–30 were thus randomly selected to act as volunteer for
the study.
Criterion measure
The investigator preferred the AAHPERD youth fitness test battery composed of 50 mts. Dash, 60 mts. Run
and Walk, Pull-up, Push-up, Sit-up and Shuttle run, as the fitness gram for inferring data related to motor
performance and adopted the Revan’s test of progressive matrices as the means to figure out development of
intelligence. The longitudinal study was framed to collect data bi-annually i.e., at an interval of six months,
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as shown below in the chart.
Number of Stages
Month / Week &Year
1st stage
1 st week of January (2006)
2nd stage
1 st week of July(2006)
3rd stage
1 st week of January(2007)
4th stage
1 st week of July(2007)
5th stage
1 st week of January(2008)
Table – 1: Motor Performance Tests, Objectives with the Measuring Units
Sl. No.
Motor Performance Tests
Objectives
Measuring Units
1.
50 yard dash
Speed
1/100 sec.
2.
600 yard run and walk
Cardio-respiratory endurance
1/100 sec.
3.
Shuttle run
Agility
1/100 sec.
4.
Pull ups
Arm strength
Number / min.
5.
Sit ups
Abdominal strength
Number / min.
6.
Standing broad jump
Leg explosive strength
Cms.
For intelligence measure Raven’s Intelligence Test of Progressive Matrices was used in this study. The
battery consisted of 5 sets of problems. The problems were displayed and answers were sought in tick
marks. Evaluation was made with the key for the test.
Statistical Procedure
Standard Statistical Procedures have been adopted for analysis and interpretation of data collected. Firstly,
mean and S.D. were calculated and further Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation was computed to locate
the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.
Result and Discussion
The data collected from the previously mentioned tests and measurements have been statically analyzed
adopting the methods mentioned above.
At first as a part of descriptive statistics the Mean and S.D. of both the motor performance variables and
development of intelligence at the different stages of the study i.e. 10.5-12.5 years were computed followed
by paired sample t test to locate the degree of difference.
The mean and S.D. for the motor performance variables are presented in table no. 2 and simultaneously the
mean and S.D. for intelligence are presented in table no. 3 respectively.
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Table 2: Mean and S.D of Motor Performance Variables at different stages of growth
Variables
1 st Stage
(Cm.)
Mean
50
2nd Stage
3 rd Stage
4th Stage
5th Stage
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
1.27
9.44
0.79
9.06
0.81
8.95
0.83
8.89
0.81
0.19
2.03
0.19
1.95
0.22
1.82
0.19
1.72
0.19
up 18.23
9.09
19.40
8.62
24.53
8.12
27.33
7.86
29.07
7.39
up 1.93
1.76
4.17
2.98
5.07
3.57
5.40
3.72
5.47
3.43
0.83
11.62
0.735 12.14
0.89
12.32
0.86
12.61
1.02
Yard 9.47
Dash (Sec)
600
Yard 2.13
Dash (Sec)
Sit
(No.)
Pull
(No.)
Shuttle
11.57
Run (Sec.)
Standing
128.47 13.50 137.47 13.76 149.37 19.40 159.33 18.09 163.43 20.23
Broad
Jump (cm)
According to table no.2 it appears that except the motor performance in shuttle run all the other variables
developed through the years under consideration. According to paired sample t test the degrees of difference
were also significant in most of the cases. Similarly, from table no. 3 it appears that the level of intelligence
improved gradually with the advancement of age, which has been presented with the help of a column chart
presented in Figure 1. The paired samples in this case also showed that degree of difference between the
means were significant in all the stages. But, as the sole intention of the author was to establish the
relationship between the motor performance variables and intelligence correlations studies have been
computed to establish their relationship, presented in the tables 4 to 8.
Figure 1. Development of Intelligence through 10 to 13 years
intelligence
10.5 yrs 11 yrs 11.5 yrs 12 yrs 12.5 yrs
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Table 3: Showing the Results of Paired Samples Test in Different Sessions of Measurement of
Intelligence
Pair
Variable
Correlation
Paired Differences
Mean
t
Sig.
Std.
Deviation
Pair 1
st
nd
nd
rd
Intelligence 1 – Intelligence 2
- Intelligence 3
0.855
*
-2.100
4.196
-2.741
0.010
0.948
*
-1.767
2.459
-3.935
0.000
Pair 2
Intelligence 2
Pair 3
Intelligence 3rd - Intelligence 4th
0.947 *
-2.167
2.614
-4.540
0.000
Pair 4
Intelligence 4th – Intelligence 5th
0.980 *
-2.400
1.831
-7.180
0.000
According to Table no. 3 it is clear that intelligence developed thoroughly at the different stages of the study
and the levels of development were statistically significant.
Table 4: Showing the Descriptive Statistics in Different Sessions of Measurement of Intelligence
1 st Session
2 nd Session
3rd Session
4th Session
5th Session
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
Intelligence 15.63
7.88
17.73
7.71
19.50
7.51
21.67
8.10
24.07
8.80
Variables
Correlation between Intelligence and Motor Performance
The tables concerned with the correlation studies have been presented in the tables below:
Table 5: Correlation between Intelligence and Motor Performance (age 10.5 years)
Motor performance
50
Intelligence
yard 600
yard Sit ups
dash
run & walk
0.111
–0.041
Pull ups
Shuttle
S. B. J.
Run
0.192
0.421*
0.202
–0.179
* Significant at 0.05 level
Table 6: Correlation between Intelligence and Motor Performance (age 11 years)
Motor Quality Variables
50 yard dash 600 yard run & walk Sit ups Pull ups Shuttle
S. B. J.
Run
Intelligence 0.244
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0.189
–0.066 0.051
0.222
0.079
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Table 7: Correlation between Intelligence and Motor Performance (age 11.5 years)
Motor Quality Variables
50 yard dash 600 yard run & walk Sit ups Pull ups Shuttle
S. B. J.
Run
Intelligence 0.287
0.243
0.195
0.271
0.260
0.124
Table 8: Correlation between Intelligence and Motor Performance (age 12 years)
Motor Quality Variables
50 yard dash 600 yard run & walk Sit ups Pull ups Shuttle
S. B. J.
Run
Intelligence 0.008
0.155
0.126
0.385*
0.089
0.191
Table 9: Correlation between Intelligence and Motor Performance (age 12.5 years)
Motor Quality Variables
50 yard dash 600 yard run & walk Sit ups Pull ups Shuttle
S. B. J.
Run
Intelligence –0.005
0.197
0.215
0.146
0.152
0.183
From the data analysis presented in the above tables it is somehow clear that at all the stages of the study i.e.
from 10 through 13 years no significant relationship exists between the independent variable Intelligence
and its dependent counterpart the motor performance variables. The findings of this study were found to be
in close proximity with the findings of other leading researchers for eg. Tuckman (1999) summarized the
results of several studies and concluded that chronic exercise training has little impact on children’s
intelligence or cognitive skills, but it does facilitate creativity. Strong support for the executive function
hypothesis has been provided through research conducted with older adults. Corder (1966) used the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) in a study conducted to evaluate the effects of 20 days of
physical fitness training on boys ranging between 12 to 16 years of age who were diagnosed with moderate
mental retardation (Mean IQ=66). Twenty-four children, matched on IQ, were randomly assigned either to a
60-min exercise intervention comprised of calisthenics, sprint runs, and 400-yard runs, an activity-control
condition that involved recording the daily training performance of children in the exercise group, or a nonexercise group. Compared to children in the non-exercise condition, physical activity resulted in
improvements in the children’s WISC Full Scale IQs (exercise ES1=0.92; non-exercise ES=0.30) and Verbal
Scale (exercise ES=1.22; non-exercise ES=0.02). There were no group differences in Performance IQ.
Importantly, IQ gains obtained by children who exercised did not differ from gains obtained by children in
the activity control group, suggesting that the attention children obtained, rather than physical activity per se,
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led to improved IQ-test performance. Tremblay et.al (2000) reported no relation between the self-reported
physical activity of 6,923 sixth grade Canadian children and their performance on standardized reading,
mathematics, science and writing tests. Kramer et.al. (1999) assessed the impact of aerobic exercise training
on both executive and non-executive cognitive processes in older adults. Participants in this study were
assigned to either a 6-month aerobic training program or a non-aerobic toning program. A battery of
cognitive tests was administered to participants prior to and following interventions. Clear post-training
differences were observed. Individuals who participated in aerobic exercise training performed tests that
required executive function (i.e., a category switching task, a flanker task, and a countermanding task) more
rapidly and more efficiently than non-exercisers. Importantly, treatments had negligible influence on older
adults’ performance of tasks that did not emphasize executive-type mental processes.
There are several research studies endeavoured to fetch the training effects or effects of chronic and acute
exercise on brain functioning, executive functioning, intelligence etc. and in many cases significant
relationship could be derived between chronic exercise and intelligence but very meager research works
have been conducted to investigate the relationship between intelligence and motor performance variables.
The author endeavoured to explore this innovative area.
Conclusion
1. The study reveals that in association with other growth and developmental components of the
children the cognitive factor or intelligence significantly improved through the years 10-13.
2. No significant relation could be established between intelligence and motor performance variables
through the years incorporated in the study.
References
Corder WO. (1966). Effects of physical education on the intellectual, physical, and social development of
educable mentally retarded boys. Exceptional Children 32:357–364.
Kramer AF, Hahn S, Gopher D. (1999). Task coordination and aging: explorations of executive control
processes in the task switching paradigm. Acta Psychologica 1010, 339 -378.
Kramer AF, Hahn S, Cohen NJ, Banich MT, McAuley E, Harrison CR, et al. (1999). Ageing, fitness and
neurocognitive function. Nature 400, 418–419.
Kaplan, R.M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2009). Standardized tests in education, civil service, and the military.
Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues 7. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 325-327.
Kaplan, R.M., & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2009). Standardized tests in education, civil service, and the military.
Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues 7. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 325-327.
Raven, J. (1981). Manual for Raven's Progressive Matrices and Vocabulary Scales. Research Supplement
No.1: The 1979 British Standardisation of the Standard Progressive Matrices and Mill Hill Vocabulary
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PRAYAS - An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies
Scales, Together With Comparative Data From Earlier Studies in the UK, US, Canada, Germany and
Ireland. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment
Raven, J. C. (1936). Mental tests used in genetic studies: The performance of related individuals on tests
mainly educative and mainly reproductive. MSc Thesis, University of London.
Raven, J., & Raven, J. (eds.) (2008) Uses and Abuses of Intelligence Studies. Advancing Spearman and
Raven’s Quest for Non-Arbitrary Metrics. Unionville, New York, Royal Fireworks Press.
Raven, J., Raven, J.C., & Court, J.H. (2003, updated 2004) Manual for Raven's Progressive Matrices and
Vocabulary Scales. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.
Tremblay MS, Inman JW, Willms JD. (2000). The relationship between physical activity, self-esteem, and
academic achievement. Pediatric Exercise Science 12, 312–323.
Tuckman BW. (1999). The effects of exercise on children and adolescents. Handbook of pediatric and
adolescent health. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 275 -286.
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ANALYTICAL STUDY ON THE STATUS OF HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS
COMPONENTS OF DIFFERENT AGE CATEGORIES AMONG SEMINARY STUDENTS
Ankan Sinha* & Meenakshi Saini**
*Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education, Govt. Degree College, Dharmanagar, Tripura,
India.
**Faculty, Kendriya Vidhyalaya, Panisagar, Tripura, India.
Abstract:
Physical fitness is the ability to function effectively throughout your work day and perform your usual other
activates and still have enough energy left over to handle any extra stress or emergency which may arise.
The purpose of the study was to analyze the statues and health related physical components of seminarians
between the age category of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23years. To achieve the purpose of the study, 60 seminary
students were randomly selected as subjects from Agartala and Dharmanagar seminaries between the age
categories of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23. The selected health related - physical fitness test were conducted to all
subjects namely, Flexibility, Muscular Strength Endurance, Cardio Respiratory Endurance, and Body
Composition. The data collected from the seminarians at different age categories were statistically
examined by using‘t’ ratio. The level of significance was fixed at 0.05 level of confidence. Results of the
study indicates that among the case of different age groups of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 years seminary
students the mean values of health related physical fitness components namely, flexibility, muscular strength
endurance, Cardio-respiratory Endurance and body composition were 24.82, 38.66, 2945 & 8.22 and 22.86,
31.40, 2603 & 11.14 respectively. The results indicates that there were significant differences on flexibility,
Muscular Strength Endurance, Cardio-respiratory Endurance and Body Composition between the age
groups 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 among the seminarians, as their calculated ‘t’ values 2.319, 3.850, 4.149 and
9.277 were higher than the tabulated ‘t’ value 2.045 respectively.
Keywords: Seminary students, Health related physical fitness, Flexibility, Muscular strength endurance,
Cardio-respiratory Endurance and Body Composition.
*******
Introduction
From the moment we are born, we enter a world full of stimulation and movement. Our senses are
overwhelmed with modern life and all it entails. Our bodies constantly experience nervous, mental and
muscular tensions. The tensions in our lives have a direct result on our state of health. As the modern world
is full of unnatural and unhealthy stresses which we both voluntarily and involuntarily inflict on our bodies,
it is not surprising that we are becoming more and more at dis-ease as a civilization. We simply push
ourselves to the world of disease through unhealthy manners of life style.
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The study of physical fitness has an important and valuable place in modern society due to its close
relationship to every individual. The physically fit individual usually performs with maximum efficiency.
The individual who are physically fit with proportional and developed body are considered healthy. A
physically fit person is less susceptible to disease and therefore in line for longer life than one whom
neglects to use his muscles. Another important bi-product of physical fitness is improves mental efficiency
because the brain is stimulated by the same increase in circulation of the blood that benefits other organs of
the body.
On the other hand Seminary is the place where the candidates are selected and given formation for the
service of the humanity through church. The students in the seminary are called as seminarians. They have
specific pattern of life including spiritual, intellectual and social, but the formatters are not much aware
about the physical fitness. As they prepare themselves for the service to the whole world they should be
physically fit and healthy enough to discharge their duties. This research may help them to understand the
facts of their status related to health related physical fitness.
Study Aim
To analyze the Status of Health Related Physical Fitness Components of Different Age Categories among
Seminary Students.
Methods
Selection of Subjects and Variables
To achieve the purpose of the study, 60 seminary students were randomly selected as subjects from Agartala
and Dharmanagar seminaries from different age categories of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23.
The researcher reviewed the available books, journals, magazines, and research abstracts. The researcher
also had had the discussions with his guide and experts in relation to choose selected health related physical
fitness variables:
1. Flexibility
2. Muscular strength and endurance
3. Cardio-respiratory endurance
4. Body composition
Criterion Measures and Reliability of Data
The following criterion measures are used to measure the variables.
S.NO VARIABLES
TEST ITEMS
UNITS
1
Sit and reach
In centimetres
Flexibility
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2
Muscular strength endurance Modified Sit-ups
3
Cardio respiratory endurance 12 min run and walk In meters
4
Body composition
Skin fold calliper.
In counts
In centimetres
The reliability of data was ensured by establishing the instrument reliability and testers competence. All
these instruments namely, stop watch, marking tape, skin fold caliper were standardized and their
calibrations were accepted as accurate enough for the purpose of this study as they were produced from
reputed firms and established by ISO unit.
Testers’ competency and variability of the tests were established by test and retest process. The investigator
had a number of practice session in the testing procedure under the guidance of the expert.
Collection of Data
Data were collected on 30 subjects each from both age categories i.e. 16-19 years and 20-23 years in 4 days
separately for each variable namely, Flexibility, Muscular Strength Endurance, Cardio Respiratory
Endurance, and Body Composition with the help of physical education teachers and other subject teacher.
The trials were given and the ages and performance scores were recorded for each and every individual.
Prior to the administration of test items, the importance of the study and variables involved in the study was
clearly explained to the subjects. In order to get better result from the subjects and to make them understand
oral and simple presentation has been given to the subjects to know their performance. After a detail
orientation the selected health related - physical fitness test were conducted to all subjects.
Procedure for Administration of Test
To measure the flexibility of the subjects in the lower back and hamstrings muscles, a specially constructed
box with a measuring scale (40 cms) was used. The subjects were to sit on the floor with hip and head
against a wall, legs fully extended forward against the box. A measuring scale placed at the top of the box
extending 20 cms forward (away from the feet in front) over the box and 20 cms backward (towards the
subjects body) from the box. The subject placed the hands as far as possible into the measuring scale at the
top of sit and reach box without lifting the hips. Investigator measured the distance reached by the subject in
centimeters.
To measure the Muscular strength endurance a mat floor or dray turf was used. The subject laid on the back
with both the knees bent at the angle of not less than 90 degrees. Feet on the floor and heels not more than
12 centimeters away from the buttocks. The subjects put hands behind the neck with fingers clasped and
placed the elbow accurately on the mat floor. Legs were held by the partner to keep them in touch with the
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surface. The subject tightened the abdominal muscles and brought head and elbow to knees. The subjects
started doing sit-ups on the word of command ‘go’. After 60 seconds the watch made stopped on the word of
command ‘stop’. The number of correctly executed sit ups performed in 60 seconds was the score. One trail
was allowed unless the investigator believed that the subject has not a fair opportunity to perform.
To measure the cardio respiratory endurance of the subjects a marked track, stop watches, whistle and score
sheet were used. 12 minutes cooper run/walk test was used to determine cardio-respiratory endurance. The
test was conducted in 400 Mts track and was prepared with marking at every ten meters. The subjects were
to stand on the starting line of the 400mts track and they were given instructions to cover as much as
distance as possible by running or walking. The distance covered by the subject in the twelve minutes was
recorded in meters. Scoring is the distance covered in meters within the stipulated time of 12 minutes.
To find the percentage of body fat (body composition) a Skin fold caliper was used. The subject was asked
to stand erect. The skin fold measurement was taken at three parts for subjects namely, pectoral (chest),
abdominal, thigh. The skin fold between the thumb and index finger about one centimeter from the site at
which the calipers were to be applied was grasped. The amount of the skin fold should be great enough to
include too thickness to skin with intervening fat, not enough to involve the muscle fascia. This was applied
above the fingers holding the skin. The sum of total three sites measurements was calculated in centimeters.
Statistical Technique
The data collected from the seminarians at different age categories were statistically examined by using‘t’
ratio. The level of significance was fixed at 0.05 level of confidence.
Findings
Findings pertaining to the performance of the subjects on sit and reach test (Flexibility) were subjected to‘t’
ratio which have been presented in table I
TABLE I: Computation of ‘t’ ratio for the difference between the mean of different age categories of
seminarians on flexibility
Age Group
N
Df
Mean
Standard Deviation
Standard error
‘t’
16 – 19
30
29
24.8233
4.92199
.89863
2.319*
20 – 23
30
22.8667
5.88237
1.07397
*significant at 0.05 level of confidence
The mean value of Flexibility for different age categories of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 years were 24.8233 and
22.8667 respectively.
The obtained‘t’ ratio (2.319) was higher than the tabulated‘t’ ratio (2.045) at require significance of 0.05
level. This indicates that there was a significant difference on flexibility between the different age categories
of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 years among the seminarians.
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FIGURE – I: Graphical representation shows that the mean values of different age categories of
seminarians on flexibility
in centimeters
24.82
22.87
25
24
23
22
21
16 - 19
20 - 23
16 - 19
20 - 23
FLEXIBILITY
Finding pertaining to the performance of the subjects on sit- ups test (Muscular strength endurance) were
subjected to‘t’ ratio which have been presented in table II.
TABLE II: Computation of‘t’ ratio for the difference between the mean of different age categories of
seminarians on muscular strength endurance
Age Group
N
16 – 19
30
20 – 23
Df
Mean
Standard deviation
Standard error
38.6667
7.10189
1.29662
31.4000
6.37127
1.16323
29
30
‘t’
3.850*
*significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
The mean value of Muscular Strength Endurance for different age categories of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 years
were 38.67 and 31.40 respectively.
The obtained‘t’ ratio (3.850) was higher than the tabulated‘t’ ratio (2.045) at require significance of 0.05
level. This indicates that there was a significant difference on Muscular Strength Endurance between the
different age categories of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 years among the seminarians.
FIGURE – II: Graphical representation shows that the mean values of different age categories of
seminarians on muscular strength endurance
in counts
38.67
31.4
40
20
16 - 19
0
16 - 19
20 - 23
MUSCULAR STRENGTH ENDURANCE
Finding pertaining to the performance of the subjects on 12 minutes Cooper run/walk test (Cardiorespiratory endurance) were subjected to‘t’ ratio which have been presented in table III
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TABLE III: Computation of ‘t’ ratio for the difference between the mean of different age categories of
seminarians on cardio respiratory endurance
Age Group
N
16 – 19
30
Df
Mean
Standard Deviation
Standard error
2945.0000
406.06395
74.13679
2603.3333
272.26171
49.70796
29
20 - 23
30
‘t’
4.149*
*significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
The mean value of Cardio-respiratory Endurance for different age categories of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 years
were 2945.00 and 2603.33 respectively.
The obtained‘t’ ratio (4.149) was higher than the tabulated‘t’ ratio (2.045) at require significance of 0.05
level. This indicates that there was a significant difference on Cardio-respiratory Endurance between the
different age categories of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 years among the seminarians.
FIGURE – III: Graphical representation shows that the mean values of different age categories of
seminarians on cardio-respiratory endurance
in meters
2945
3000
2603.33
2800
16 - 19
2600
20 - 23
2400
16 - 19
20 - 23
CARDIO RESPIRATORY ENDURANCE
Finding pertaining to the measurements of body fat percentage of the subjects through skin fold caliper
(Body composition) were subjected to‘t’ ratio which have been presented in table IV.
Computation of ‘t’ ratio for the difference between the mean of different age categories of
seminarians on body composition
Age Group
16 - 19
N
Df
30
Mean
Standard Deviation
Standard error
8.2267
1.37413
0.25088
29
20 - 23
30
‘t’
9.277*
11.1433
1.49682
0.27328
*significant at 0.05 level of confidence.
The mean value of Body Composition for different age categories of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 years were 8.23
and 11.14 respectively.
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The obtained‘t’ ratio (9.277) was higher than the tabulated‘t’ ratio (2.045) at require significance of 0.05
level. This indicates that there was a significant difference on Body Composition between the different age
categories of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23 years among the seminarians.
FIGURE – IV: Graphical representation shows that the mean values of different age categories of
seminarians on body composition
in centimeters
11.14
15
8.23
10
16 - 19
5
0
16 - 19
20 - 23
BODY COMPOSITION
Discussions on findings
1. In the present study the result indicates that the mean value of health related physical fitness
components namely, flexibility, muscular strength endurance, cardio-respiratory endurance and body
composition were 24.82, 38.66, 2945 and 8.22 respectively among the age group of 16 to 19 years
seminary students.
2. In the present study the result indicates that the mean value of health related physical fitness
components namely, flexibility, muscular strength endurance, cardio-respiratory endurance and body
composition were 22.86, 31.40, 2603 and 11.14 respectively among the age group of 20 to 23 years
seminary students.
3. The results indicates that there were significant differences on flexibility, Muscular Strength
Endurance, Cardio-respiratory Endurance and Body Composition between the age groups 16 to 19
and 20 to 23 among the seminarians, as their calculated ‘t’ values 2.319, 3.850, 4.149 and 9.277
were higher than the tabulated ‘t’ value 2.045 respectively.
4. The result of the study showed that the seminarians of 16-19 years age category were having better
efficiency in health related physical fitness components as compare to the seminarians of 20-23 years
age categories as their mean values (24.82, 38.66, 2945) for flexibility, muscular strength endurance,
cardio-respiratory endurance respectively were higher than the mean values (22.86, 31.40, 2603) of
20-23 years age category. At the same time the mean value (8.22) of 16-19 years age category was
lower than the mean value (11.14) of 20-23 age categories in relation to body composition.
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Conclusions
It was concluded that there were significant differences in the status of health related physical fitness
components namely, flexibility, muscular strength endurance, cardio respiratory endurance and body
composition of seminary students between the age group of 16 to 19 and 20 to 23years.
Further it was also concluded that status of health related physical fitness components among
seminarians of 16 to 19 years old were better and efficient than seminarians of 20 to 23 years old. Lastly,
according to this study the investigator may conclude that with increase in age the health and fitness level
of seminarians even in their initial years of life may decreases to certain extent.
References
Zhu W. “A multilevel analysis of school factors associated with health-related fitness”. Research Quarterly
of Exercise and Sport Jun; 68(2), (1997): 125-35.
Singh A. and et al., Essential of Physical Education, Kalyani Publication (2006).
Anand S., UGC NET/JRF/SLET Physical Education, Upkar Publications.
Kansal D.K., Test and Measurement in Sports and Physical Education, D.V.S. publication.
Larry B. Christensen, R. Burke Johnson and Lisa A. Turner. Research Methods, Design, and Analysis. (Apr
23, 2010).
Helena. Reliability of health-related physical fitness tests in European
adolescence. International Journal
of Obesity 32 (2008): 49–57.
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EFFECT OF OXYGEN VACANCY ON THE ROOM TEMPERATURE MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR
OF MANGANESE DOPED NANOCRYSTALLINE TITANIA
Susmita Paul*, Amarjyoti Choudhury** & Gazi.Ameen.Ahmed ***.
*Research Scholar, Department of Physics, Tezpur University, Assam, India.
**Professor, Department of Physics, Tezpur University, Assam, India.
*** Associate Professor, Department of Physics, Tezpur University, Assam, India.
Corresponding author: Susmita Paul
Abstract
Manganese doped TiO2 nanoparticles are synthesized via a simple sol-gel method. The structural
characterization of the nanoparticles is done by X-Ray Diffraction and TEM. EDX analysis confirms the
incorporation of manganese ions in the nanocrystalline lattice without the presence of any detectable oxide
phases. Doping imparts magnetism in TiO2 and the magnetic response is found to be strikingly different
when annealed under two different atmospheric conditions. Vacuum annealed sample shows ferromagnetic
behavior whereas air annealed sample exhibits complete paramagnetism. Such ferromagnetic behaviour is
attributed to the interaction of neighbouring Mn2+ ions via oxygen vacancies.
Keywords: Oxygen vacancies, ferromagnetism, paramagnetism.
*******
Introduction
Magnetism has been a curiosity for many millenniums. Magnetic behaviour of semiconductor materials
(DMS) doped with certain amount of magnetic impurities finds promising applications in spintronic devices
[1]. Recently extensive research has been performed on DMS system with the foremost focus on creating
room temperature ferromagnetism. After the infiltrate attempt by Matsumoto.et.al [2] on cobalt doped
TiO2 thin films , many reports have appeared as regards magnetism in other wide band gap oxide
semiconductors by doping different transition metal ions[3,4]. However the origin of magnetism has been
quite controversial in these systems.
Among the various transition metal ion imparting magnetism in the otherwise non magnetic TiO2 [2]. Mn
doped TiO2 is one such systems which finds potential application as spintronic and photocatalytic material as
well [5,6]. Doping manganese into semiconductor nanocrystals is very tricky and divisive owing to the selfpurification route whereby the Mn has a tendency to be debarred to the nanocrystal exterior [7]. The
environment of magnetism is observed to fluctuate in the reports on Mn-doped TiO2 samples, in view of
room
temperature
ferromagnetism
[6,8],
superparamagnetism
[9],
paramagnetism
[10],
and
antiferromagnetism with a N´eel temperature TN = 41–65 K [11]. In this report we have tried to find the
exact source of ferromagnetism in manganese doped TiO2 nanoparticles by annealing the doped material in
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aerobic and anaerobic atmosphere.
Experimental Methods
Synthesis method
Mn2+ doped TiO2 nanoparticles (x=0.05) were synthesized via sol-gel method. The precursor for dopant
and host precursors were manganese acetate tetrahydrate and titanium iso-propoxide respectively.
Titanium Isopropoxide and propanol were mixed in the ratio of 1:3 followed by the addition of water to
initiate the hydrolysis reaction. During such process first a sol was formed which ultimately transformed
into a gel. The product was dried and finally annealed at 450 oC to obtain crystalline manganese doped
anatase TiO2 nanoparticles. A part of the dried product is annealed in vaccum at 200 oC. After vacuum
annealing the product was again air annealed at 450oC for 3 hrs.
Characterisation and measurements
The structure of all the samples are determined using Rigaku Miniflex CD 10041 XRD unit with copper
target and λ=1.54 angstrom at a scanning rate of 1o/min and in the scanning range of 10-80 o. The elemental
composition are known from energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) equipped with a JEOL JSM 6390 LV
scanning electron microscope (SEM). High resolution transmission electron microscope images for
morphology and particle size determination are observed with JEM-2100, 200kV JEOL. The
photoluminescence (PL) measurements at room temperature are recorded with PERKIN ELMER LS 55
fluorescence spectroscopy Magnetization measurements were performed on a SQUID magnetometer
(Quantum Design, USA).
Results and Discussions
XRD
Fig.1 shows the diffraction pattern of undoped and manganese
doped TiO2 nanoparticles. All the diffraction peaks are well
indexed to the tetragonal anatase phase (JCPDS-782486) and
no indication of manganese containing phases is resolved. A
close inspection of the most intense (101) peak reveals
shifting of the peaks to lower angle side (inset Fig.1)
indicating well incorporation of manganese ions in the TiO2
lattice [12]. The mean size of the crystallites in the undoped
and manganese doped TiO2 nanoparticles estimated by using
the Debye-Scherrer equation [13] are calculated to be 18 nm
and 9.7 nm respectively.
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TEM
Fig 2(a) and 2(b) shows the transmission electron microscopic images of undoped and 0.05 mol Mn doped
TiO2 nanoparticles. The average particle size for undoped titania is 21 nm while it decreases to 10 nm for
5% manganese doping concentration, inferring that addition of Mn ions hinders the growth of TiO2
nanoparticles and this finding is quite consisted with the XRD analysis. The EDX spectrum (Fig.2c)
corroborates the presence of expected elements in the doped samples.
Photoluminescence Intensity
Fig.3 shows the photoluminescence spectra of
undoped and manganese doped TiO2 nanoparticles
at an excitation wavelength of 320 nm. From the
spectra
it is observed that doping is neither
introducing any Mn2+ related emission peaks nor is
shifting the peak position only quenching in the
intensity is noticed after doping and this is due to
the presence of oxygen vacancies generated by Mn2+
that
possibly act as non-radiative recombination
centre. Similar results have also been reported in
case of ZnO, whereby manganese quenches the
emission intensity with no appreciable peak shifting
[14].
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Magnetic properties
Magnetic measurements are performed for both vacuum annealed and air annealed samples are obtained at
an applied field of ± 20 kOe . Fig.4(a)- (c) shows the field dependent magnetization curves of undoped,
vacuum annealed and air annealed sample respectively. Pure TiO2 shows diamagnetic behavior (Fig.4a).
The M-H curve (Fig.4b) of vacuum annealed sample exhibits a clear hysteresis loop with a coercive field of
116 Oe and a saturation magnetization of 0.008 emu/gm revealing RT ferromagnetic characteristics. In
contrast the curve of air annealed sample (Fig.4c) is linear with zero coercive field and remnant
magnetization inferring typical behaviour of paramagnetic ordering. The two different magnetic nature of
the same sample with variation in the annealing atmosphere put a question on the inherent environment of
magnetism.
Now to explain the ferromagnetism in oxide based DMS s, two theories Rudermane Kittele Kasuyae Yosida
(RKKY) interaction and bound magnetic polaron (BMP) theory are usually employed [15,16]. RRKY is
mostly applicable for metallic system with large number of delocalized free electrons while BMP is applied
in case of semiconducting or insulating oxides with localized electrons [17].
From the photoluminescence spectra it is inferred that manganese doping reduces the emission intensity of
TiO2. The photo excited electrons are trapped and strongly localized in these oxygen vacancies. So, in our
present investigation Bound Magnetic Polaron (BMP) theory is more applicable rather than RRKY. A bound
magnetic polaron is formed when an electron is trapped in these oxygen vacancies and these
vacancies/defects are coupled with the moments of manganese ions within their hydrogen like orbital. If the
number of BMPs is sufficiently large, there is the possibility that two such BMPs might overlap leading to a
kind of FM ordering in the oxide lattice [18]. The ferromagnetic coupling between two Mn2+ ions via
oxygen vacancies therefore induces ferromagnetism.
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Conclusions
Manganese doped TiO2 nanoparticles are annealed in air and vacuum. Undoped TiO2 nanoparticles do not
exhibit any magnetism. But Doping of manganese in the TiO2 lattice results in ferromagnetism through
vacuum annealing route.
Oxygen vacancies are mainly held responsible for imparting this observed
ferromagnetism as the magnetism disappears when the sample is air annealed. The manganese ions undergo
exchange interaction via these oxygen vacancies and form bound magnetic polaron to bring on
ferromagnetism.
Acknowledgements
We offer our sincere thanks to SAIF, NEHU for helping us TEM images and Department Of Physics, IIT
Bombay for helping us in providing magnetic results. We are also thankful to UGC for financial support to
the major project F.No.42-785/2013 (SR). A part of the work was also carried out through project no
SR/NM/NS-98/2010(G), supported by DST.
References
A.F. Cabrera, L. Errico, C.E. Rodríguez Torres, F.H. Sánchez, Influence of thermal treatments on phase
formation and magnetic behaviour in metal transition doped TiO2, Physica B 389, 2007, 103-106.
A Tiwari, V.M Bhosle, S Ramachandran, N Sudhakar, J Narayan, S. Budak, A. Gupta, Ferromagnetism in
Co doped CeO2: Observation of a giant magnetic moment with a high curie temperature. Appl. Phys. Lett.
88, 2006, 142511
C. X. Xu, X. W. Sun, Z. L. Dong, S. T. Tan, Y. P. Cui, and B. P. Wang. Manganese doped zinc oxide
tetratubes and their photoluminescence properties. J.Appl.Phys. 98 (2005) 113513.
D.A. Schwartz, N.S. Norberg, Q.P. Nguyen, J.M. Parker, D.R. Gamelin, Magnetic quantum dots: synthesis,
spectroscopy, and magnetism of Co2+ and Ni2+ doped ZnO nanocrystals. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125 (43),
2003, 13205.
S.A. Wolf, D.D. Awschalom, R.A. Buhrman, J.M. Daughton, S. von Molnar, M.L. Roukes, A.Y.
Chtchelkanova, D.M. Treger, Spintronics: A Spin-Based Electronics Vision for the Future Science 294,
2001, 1488.
S.Paul, A.Choudhury, Visible Light Photocatalytic activity of Manganese Doped TiO2 nanoparticles. 1,
2012, 24-31.
K.J. Kim, Y.R. Park, J.H. Lee, S.L. Choia, H.J. Lee, C.S. Kim, J.Y. park, Room-temperature ferromagnetic
properties in Mn-doped rutile thin films, J. Magn. Magn. Mater 316, 2007, 215–218.
G.Glaspell, A. Manivannan , Sol–Gel Synthesis and Magnetic Studies of Titanium Dioxide Doped with 10%
M (M=Fe, Mn and Ni) J. Cluster Sci. 16, 2005, 501-13.
J.M. Coey, M. Venkatesan, C.B. Fitzgerald, Donor impurity band exchange in dilute ferromagnetic oxides,
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Nat. Mater. 4, 2005, 173-179.
J.M.D. Coey, A.P. Douvalis, C.B. Fitzgerald, M. Venkatesan, Ferromagnetism in Fe- doped SnO2 thin
films, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2004, 1332-1334.
K. Das, S.N. Sharma, M. Kumar, S.K. De, Morphology Dependent Luminescence Properties of Co Doped
TiO2 Nanostructures J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 2009, 14783-14792.
M.J. Calderón, S. Das Sarma, Theory of carrier mediated ferromagnetism in dilute magnetic oxides, Ann.
Phys. 322, 2007, 2618–2634.
P. H. Borse, D. Srinivas, R. F. Shinde, S. K. Date, W. Vogel, S. K. Kulkarni, Effect of Mn2+ concentration in
ZnS nanoparticles on photoluminescence and electron-spin- resonance, Phys. Rev. B 60 (1999) 8659–8664.
S. Bhattacharyya, A. Pucci , D. Zitoun, A. Gedanken. One-pot fabrication and magnetic studies of Mndoped TiO2 nanocrystals with an encapsulating carbon layer Nanotechnology 19, 2008, 495711.
S.Paul, A.Choudhury, S. Bojja. Effect of nickel doping on the optical property and photocatalytic activity of
TiO2 nanoparticles, Micro and Nano letters 8, 2013, 184-187.
S.Sharma, S.Chaudhury, S.C.Kashyap, S.K.Sharma. Room temperature ferromagnetism in Mn doped TiO2
thin films : Electronic structure and Raman investigations. J.Appl.Phys 109, 2011, 083905.
Y. Matsumoto, M. Murakami, T. Shono, T. Hasegawa, T. Fukumura, M. Kawasaki, P. Ahmet, T. Chikyow,
S. Koshihara, H. Koinuma. Room-temperature ferromagnetism
in transparent transition metal-doped
titanium dioxide Science, 291, 2001, 854–856.
Zoran V. Saponjic, Nada M. Dimitrijevic, Oleg G. Poluektov, Lin X. Chen, Eric Wasinger, Ulrich Welp,
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Doping Study, J. Phys. Chem. B 110, 2006, 25441-25450.
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IMPACT OF PERCEIVED DEPRIVATION ON DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDE TOWARDS
PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF THE SCHOOL GOING ADOLESCENTS.
Sabyasachi Chatterjee*, Madhab Chandra Ghosh**, Samirranjan Adhikari***
* Assistant Teacher, M. B. Vidyalaya, Hooghly, W.B, India.
** Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education, University of Kalyani, W.B, India.
*** Assistant Professor in Psychology, S. S. College of Education, Nadia, W.B, India.
Corresponding author: Sabyasachi Chatterjee
Abstract
Objectives: There are certainly some psychological factors contributing to the development of attitude
towards physical education of the school-going adolescents. Here, Home Deprivation and School
Deprivation were considered to have effect on the development of attitude towards physical education.
Method: The study was carried out through descriptive survey method within ex-post facto research design.
A sample of 273 adolescents (98 females and 175 males) was chosen from Government, Government Aided
secondary/higher secondary schools of West Bengal by stratified random sampling technique. To collect
data “Attitude towards Physical Education Scale” and “Self Expression Inventory (SEI)” were
administered on the sample.
Results: A multiple regression equation was framed to predict the attitude towards physical education and
the equation is:
Attitude = 97.242-0.210 x Home Deprivation +0 .070 x School Deprivation
Conclusion: Home Deprivation was observed to have negative impact on development of attitude towards
physical education of school-going adolescents, whereas School Deprivation contributed positively.
Key words: Attitude, Home Deprivation, School Deprivation, Multiple Regression Equation
*******
Introduction
In recent years there has been mounting evidence that supports the health related benefits that are gained by
individuals who engage in moderate levels of physical activity. One document in particular, Physical
Activity and Health, A Report of the U.S. Surgeon General (1996), has been a landmark publication which
clearly presents those benefits. Unfortunately, as the research supporting the benefits of physical activity
becomes more apparent, many segments of our population are still not adhering to the call, opting instead
for a sedentary lifestyle. In order for physical education to accomplish this goal, it is essential that student
attitudes be considered when making curricular and programme decisions. Up to this point, student voices
have been rarely considered--this is especially true for middle school students. Subsequently, little is known
about which aspects of middle school physical education evoke positive or negative attitudes in students.
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This information, if available could assist practitioners, teacher educators, and curriculum developers in
providing optimal physical education experiences for middle school students. Therefore, the purpose of this
study was to examine middle school students' attitudes toward a physical education programme and to
determine the various aspects of the programme that appear to contribute to positive and negative attitudes
toward middle school physical education.
Physical and health education, and sports contribute to the all-round development of human personality,
especially in nurturing health, strength and fitness of the body. This education also develops some other
mental traits like endurance, courage, decision-making capacity, resourcefulness, respect for others,
faithfulness, loyalty to duty etc. Therefore, physical and health education, and sports form an integral part of
the educational process as a whole (Venkatesha Murthy & Kumar, 1997).
Attitudes toward Physical Education
Students’ attitudes toward physical education have been under investigation since the 1930’s. Traditionally,
the purpose of such inquiry has been to identify factors that contribute to positive and negative feelings
toward physical education. Investigators believed that having such information would improve the quality of
physical education by allowing teachers to consider student insights when making curricular or programme
decisions. Subsequently, research in this area has been plentiful. The preponderance of attention, however,
has focused on college (Alden, 1932; Brumbach, 1968; Brumbach& Cross, 1965; Bullock & Alden, 1933;
Campbell, 1968; Figley, 1985; Keogh, 1962) and high school students (Carr, 1945; Earl &Stennett, 1987;
Luke & Sinclair, 1991; Rice, 1988; Tannehill, Romar, O’Sullivan, England, & Rosenberg, 1994).
The few studies conducted on junior high and middle school students indicate that positive attitudes toward
physical education appear to be strongest at the sixth grade level for both boys and girls. With each passing
grade, however, attitudes toward physical education become less favourable (King, 1994). Although this
attitudinal decline transpires in both genders, it is more severe in girls (Treanor, Graber, Housner,
&Wiegand, 1998).
Deprivation and Perceived Deprivation
The very term ‘deprivation’ is multidimensional and seems to be a variation of ‘social disadvantage’.
However, it is not necessarily confirmed to low socio-economic status homes (Khan, 2001). In this world at
one time or the other, each person experiences some sort of deprivation or non-fulfillment of his / her needs.
Hence, sense of deprivation is a pervasive phenomenon. However, for some, this deprivation may be sever,
recurrent and prolonged, where as for others it may be mild, temporary or ephemeral. Further, deprivation
may take different forms such as social, cultural, economical, parental, psychological etc. and may range
from low level to high level. Sense of deprivation is defined as the feeling of deprivation caused by the nonfulfillment of needs due to the deficiency in various aspects of the home and school environment of an
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individual. The deprived consistently feel that they are being deprived of some privileges and opportunities
which most of the upper class children routinely enjoy. They are generally obsessed with the thought that
most of their physical, social and psychological needs are not satisfied due to the poor economic condition
of their families, low social status and illiteracy of their parents. These deprived children most often feel that
their academic achievement is not up to the mark because of the scarcity of resources in their homes, which
are necessary for their proper study as well as sports practices. They may develop a sense that they are not
properly attended to and motivated by teachers due to the poor socio-economic status of their parents and
this may distort their perception of the organizational climate of their schools.
Objectives of the Study
a) To discern the psychological and social causes contributing to the development of attitude.
b) To formulate multiple regression equations considering attitude towards physical education as
dependent variable, and perceived deprivation as independent variables
Acquaintances with the Psycho-social Constructs under Study:
Attitude – Within a decade of the establishment of social psychology as a separate discipline within
psychology, the concept of attitude was thoroughly established as one of its prime substantive areas.
According to Fiske and Taylor (1984), the study of attitudes is the cornerstone of social psychology.
There is no single definition of attitude on which all psychologists would agree. Some of the most
acceptable definitions are –
a) An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a
directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which
it is related (Allport, 1955).
b) A learned orientation, or disposition, towards an object or situation, which provides a tendency to
respond favourably or unfavourably to the object or situation (Rokeach, 1968).
c) Attitudes have social reference in their origins and development and in their objects, while at the
same time they have psychological reference in that they inhere in the individual and are intimately
enmeshed in his behaviour and his psychological makeup (Warren & Jahoda, 1973).
d) Attitudes are likes and dislikes (Bem, 1970).
Deprivation – The very term “deprivation” is multidimensional and seems to be a variation of “social
disadvantage”. However, it is not necessarily confined to low socio-economic-status homes (Khan, 2001).
In this world at one time or another, each person experiences some sort of deprivation or non-fulfilment of
his/her needs. Hence, sense of deprivation is a pervasive phenomenon. However, for some, this deprivation
may be severe, recurrent and prolonged; whereas for others it may be mild, temporary or ephemeral.
Further, deprivation may take different forms such as social, cultural, economical, parental, psychological
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etc. and may range from low level to high level. Sense of deprivation is defined as the feeling of deprivation
caused by the non-fulfilment of needs due to the deficiency in various aspects of the home and school
environment of an individual.
Method
The present study was carried out through descriptive survey method within ex-post-facto research design.
The details regarding sample, tools, procedure of data collection and statistical technique are reported as
under:
Sample
Source – Government aided Secondary / Higher Secondary Schools of West Bengal were considered as
source of sample.
Sampling Technique – Stratified Random Sampling Technique was adopted.
Sample Size – Finally 175 male subjects and 98 female subjects participated in the study.
Sample Characteristics – Only school going adolescents (students of Class IX & X of age group 14 – 17
yrs.), who took Physical Education as their additional subject, were taken. Only Bengali speaking students
were taken.
Tools
The following research tools were used in the present study for data collection. The tools were selected by
applying yardsticks of relevance, appropriateness, reliability, validity and suitability. Brief descriptions of
the tools are given hereunder.
Attitudes toward Physical Education Scale – Demirhan, & Altay, 2001
Demirhan and Altay (2001) developed the “Attitude toward Physical Education Scale” for Turkish students.
This is a paper and pencil self-report instrument with a 5-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging
from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree) summed across 24 items, resulting in a range from 24 to
120. A score of 24 indicates the most negative attitude; a score of 25-48 indicates a negative attitude; 49-72
a neutral attitude; 73-94 a positive attitude; and 95-120 the most positive attitude.
Self Expression Inventory (SEI) [A measure of sense of deprivation] – Verma & Upadhyay, 1984
This inventory measures the sense of deprivation in home and school environment of the students. The test
contains 30 items and each item has two parts. The first part deals with the stem question. The second part
deals with four alternative responses – (a) Two of the alternatives are related to sense of deprivation, i.e.
“yes” response to which shows the respondent’s sense of deprivation and (b) Other two of the alternatives
are neutral statements i.e. “yes” response to which does not imply any sense of deprivation.

In West Bengal, Physical Education is treated as compulsory subject up to class VIII and in Secondary stage
(classes IX & X) it is treated as an additional subject.
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Procedure for Data Collection:
The relevant data on different constructs were collected by administering the above-mentioned tools on the
subjects under study in accordance with the directions provided in the respective manuals of the tools with
the help of SPSS-10.01 software.
Statistical Analysis:
To predict attitude towards physical education a multiple regression equation has been framed. Linear
Regression estimates the coefficients of the linear equation, involving one or more independent variables
that best predict the value of the dependent variable. Here, we have tried to predict the attitude towards
physical education (the dependent variable) from independent variable perceived deprivation (home and
school).
Results
Table-1: Coefficient in Multiple Regression Analysis with Attitude Scores of School-going Adolescents
as Dependent Variable
Standardized
Predictors
(Constant)
Home
Deprivation
School
Deprivation
Un standardized Coefficients
Coefficients
B
β
Std. Error
t
Sig.
248.575
0.000
97.242
0.391
-0.210
0.027
-0.586
-7.793
0.000
0.070
0.025
0.209
2.780
0.006
Table-1 shows the regression coefficients of multiple regression equation predicting attitude towards
physical education. Here the constant was 97.242 and the coefficients of Home Deprivation and School
Deprivation were as- 0.210 and 0.070 respectively. Therefore, the linear multiple regression equation is as
followsAttitude = 97.242 -0.210 X Home Deprivation +0 .070 X School Deprivation
Discussions and Conclusion
With linear regression, we can model the relationship of these variables. This is a good model and it can be
used to predict the attitude towards physical education.
Home Deprivation had negative impact on development of attitude towards physical education of the
school-going adolescents under study; whereas school deprivation had positive impact.
i) As home deprivation increases attitude towards physical education decreases. Coming form a poor
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family a student may feel that his/her primary needs are not properly catered and consequently feels
home deprivation. Games and sports are still considered in our society as extravagance. After the
fulfilment of the basic needs an individual may look for physical education. Games and sports may
cause physical injuries and would invite more medical expenses; this may also the cause of such
disliking (Tannehill & Zakrajsek, 1993). Again, coming from a deprived home, an adolescent
primarily finds the means of earning livelihood. He/she may not consider physical education as the
provider for earning of livelihood. In our society, till now physical education cannot secure the
provisions for primary needs and the findings of the present study may be defensible in this light.
ii) Whereas those who felt deprived in school setting, preferred physical education more. Here it is
interesting to observe that higher the school deprivation implies higher the attitude. In schools,
normally, cognitive and intellectual exercises are practiced. The students who lack in interest of these
general educational exposures feel deprived in school. They may find their resort in physical
education, which actually supplies them with some interest other than mere cognitive and intellectual
functioning. So our finding may be acceptable.
References
Alden, M. A. (1932).The factors in the required physical education program that is least attractive to the
college girl. Research Quarterly 3 (3), 97-107.
Allport, G.W. (1955). Becoming - basic considerations for a psychology of personality. New Haven,
Connecticut: Yale University Press.
Bem, D. J. (1970). Beliefs, attitudes and human affairs. Belmont, California: Brooks Cole.
Brumbach, W. B. & Cross, J. A. (1965). Attitudes toward physical education of male students entering the
University of Oregon. Research Quarterly 36 (1), 10-16.
Brumbach, W. B. (1968).Effect of a special conditioning class upon students' attitudes toward physical
education. Research Quarterly 39 (1), 211-213.
Bullock, M. & Alden, F. D. (1933).Some of the factors determining the attitude of freshman women at the
University of Oregon toward required physical education. Research Quarterly 4 (4), 60-64.
Campbell, D. E. (1968). Student attitudes toward physical education. Research Quarterly 39 (3), 456-462.
Carr M. G. (1945). The relationship between success in physical education and selected attitudes expressed
by high school freshmen girls. Research Quarterly 16 (3), 176-191.
Demirhan, G. & Altay, F. (1996). Attitudes of first Graders of High school toward Physical Education
Lesson. 4th Exercise Science Congress Paper Abstracts, Ankara: H.Ü.School of Exercise Science and
Technologies, 1st-3rd November, 79.
Earl, L. M. & Stennett, R. G. (1987).Student attitudes toward physical and health education in secondary
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schools in Ontario. Canadian Alliance of Health, Physical Education and Recreation Journal 53 (4), 4-11.
Figley, G. E. (1985). Determinants of attitudes toward physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical
Education 4 (4), 229-240.
Khan, Z. N. (2001). Open learning and socially deprived sections of the society. New Frontiers in Education,
XXXI (4): 503-506.
Fiske, S.T. & Taylor, S.E. (1984). Social cognition. Wokingham: Addison-Wesley.
King, M. H. (1994). Student attitudes toward physical education at the intermediate level (Masters thesis,
Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada, 1994). Masters Abstracts International 34-02, 0499.
Koegh, J. (1962). Analysis of general attitudes toward physical education, Research Quarterly 33, 239-244.
Luke, M. D. & Sinclair, G. D. (1991).Gender differences in adolescents' attitudes toward school physical
education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 11(1), 31-46.
Rice, P. L. (1988).Attitudes of high school students toward physical education activities, teachers, and
personal health. Physical Educator 45 (2), 94-99.
Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, attitudes and values. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Tannehill, D., & Zakrajsek, D. (1993).Student attitudes towards physical education: A multicultural study.
Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 13 (1), 78-84.
Tannehill, D., Romar, J. E., O. Sullivan, M., England, K. & Rosenberg, D. (1994). Attitudes toward physical
education: Their impact on how physical education teachers make sense of their work. Journal of Teaching
in Physical Education 13 (4), 406-420.
Treanor, L., Graber, K., Housner, L. & Wiegand, R. (1998).Middle school students' perceptions of
coeducational and same-sex physical education classes. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 18 (1),
43-55.
Verma, R.P. & Upadhyay, U. (1984). Manual for self expression inventory (a measure of sense of
deprivation). National Psychological Corporation, Agra.
Warren, S. & Jahoda, M. (Eds.) (1973).Attitudes (2nd Ed).Harmond-sworth, Middlesex: Penguin.
United States Department Of Health And Human Services. (1996). Physical Activity And Health: A Report
of The Surgeon General. Atlanta, Ga: U.S. Department Of Health And Human Services, Centres For Disease
Control And Prevention, National Centre For Chronic Disease Prevention And Health Promotion, S/N 017023-00196-5, 3- 8.
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INVESTIGATION OF VIBRATIONAL SPECTRA OF BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE (C60) USING
THE LIE ALGEBRA.
Raghunandan Das*, Nirmal Kumar Sarkar** & Ramendu Bhattacharjee***
*
Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Government Degree College, Dharmanagar, India.
**
Associate Professor, Department of Physics, Karimganj College, Karimganj, India.
***
Professor, Department of Physics, Assam University, Silchar, India.
Corresponding author: Raghunandan Das
Abstract
Using Lie algebraic method, the vibrational energy levels of Buckminsterfullerene (C60) is calculated for
some selected vibrational modes. The dynamical symmetry group of icosahedron (Ih) molecule (C60) was
taken into consideration to construct the model Hamiltonian in this frame work. Casimir and Majorana
invariant operators were also determined accordingly. Using the model Hamiltonian so constructed, we
have calculated the vibrational energy levels of Buckminsterfullerene (C60) accurately.
Keywords: Lie algebra, vibrational energy level, icsohedron, Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
PACS No.: 02.20.Sv; 03.65.Fd; 31.15.Hz
*******
Introduction
One of the most interesting areas of current research in molecular physics is the study of vibrational ground
and excited states of polyatomic molecules. For the last few years, theoretical studies of highly excited
vibrational states of polyatomic molecules have been one of the most interesting topics for theoreticians and
experimentalists because of the development of new laser spectroscopic techniques. Wulfman played a great
role in introducing algebraic approach to molecules. He is the pioneer to publish the first paper on the
algebraic approach to molecules [1] (the algebraic approach to the Morse oscillator) in 1979. Later, in 1981,
Iachello [2] used Lie algebraic methods to study the spectra of molecules (vibron model) using U(4) algebra.
The U(4) model takes the rotation and the vibration into account simultaneously but becomes complex when
the number of atoms in the molecules becomes larger than four. After 1981, there is a rapid progress in this
field. Iachello et al [3,4]
proposed U(4) algebra to calculate the stretching and bending vibrational
excitations of linear triatomic and tetratomic molecules. The situation up to 1995 was reviewed in a study by
Iachello and Levine [5]. Oss presented a comprehensive and up-to-date review of mathematical concepts,
physical aspects, practical applications and numerical implementation of algebraic models in molecular
spectroscopy [6]. Iachello and Oss [7] presented a brief review of the work done in this field up to 2000 and
also provided perspectives for the algebraic method in the first decade of the 21st century. Recently, using
Lie algebraic method Sarkar et al have reported better results [8,9] for vibrational energy levels of HCN than
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those reported earlier.The U(2) model was particularly successful in explaining stretching vibrations of
polyatomic molecules such as tetrahedral,octahedral and benzene-like molecules [10-17]. In this study we
present the stretching vibrational excitations of buckminsterfullerene(C60) in one-dimensional framework.
The algebraic theory
The interpretation of experimental data by solving Schrödinger equation with interatomic potentials
becomes increasingly difficult as the number of atoms in the molecule increases. Similarly, Dunham
expansion contains large numbers of parameters which cannot be determined from the few available data.
The third approach is the algebraic model. The U(2) algebraic model is very much successful in explaining
the stretching and bending vibrational energies of medium size molecules. The algebraic Hamiltonian in the
U(2) model is constructed with the Casimir and Majorana operators of U(2) [11] .In this section, we use the
U(2) algebraic model which was introduced as an alternative approach to the traditional Dunham expansion
and Schrödinger equation for tetrahedral molecules. This model which may be called one-dimensional
vibron model, starts from the observation that the eigenstates of one dimensional Schrödinger equation with
a Morse potential [13],
h(p, x) =
p2
+D[1-exp(-  x)]2
2
--------------------------(1)
can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the representation of the algebra U(2)  O(2) characterized
by the quantum numbers N1,m with the provision that one takes only the positive branch of m, i.e., m =
N1,N1 - 1, N1 – 2,….., 1 or 0 for N1 = odd or even (N1 = integer). However, to have complete description of
molecular vibrations we need both stretching and bending modes. This is achieved by considering the
isomorphism of U(2) Lie algebra with the solution of Schrödinger equation with another potential called
Poschl-Teller potential [18] .This potential is very much applicable for calculating bending vibrations where
Morse potential is not appropriate. The eigenstates of Schrödinger equation with Hamiltonian operator is
h(p, x) =
p2
D
2 cosh 2 x
--------------------------(2)
It can also be put into one-to-one correspondence with the representation of U(2)  O(2), characterized by
the quantum numbers N2,m with the provision that one takes only the positive branch of m, i.e., m = N2,
N2- 1, N2- 2……, 1 or 0 for N2 = odd or even (N2 = integer). In the equation number (2), the coordinate x is
the product of the radius of bender r times the bending angle  , i.e., x = r  . For a Icosahedral molecule like
C60 , we introduce n U(2) Lie algebra to describe n stretching bonds (C-C). The two possible chains [11] of
molecular dynamical groups in Icosahedral molecule are
U1(2) … ­ Un(2)  O1(2) …. On(2)  O(2) ……………….(3)
U1(2) …… Un(2)  U(2)  O(2)
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……………………(4)
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which correspond to local and normal coupling respectively. The coupling to final O(2) group in the first
chain is carried out though different intermediate couplings Oij (2) and the second chain arises from all the
possible couplings of Ui(2)groups to obtain a total U(2) group, which in turn contains the final O(2) group
[11]. For these two situations the Hamiltonian operator can be diagonalized analytically. The common
algebraic model Hamiltonian in the case of stretching for Icosahedral molecules can be considered as [13]
n
n
n
H = E0 +  Ai C i +  AijCij +  ij M ij
i 1
i j
---------------------------- (5)
i j
where i runs from 1 to n for calculation of stretching vibrational energy level. The simplest basis to
diagonalize the Hamiltonian is characterized by the representation of local mode chain [10] .where below
each group we have used quantum numbers characterizing the eigen values of the corresponding invariant
operator. N is the number of bosons related to stretching physical modes. The quantum numbers vi
correspond to the number of quanta in each oscillator while V is the total vibrational quantum number given
by
n
V =  vi
--------------------------------- (6)
i 1
In equation (5), Ci is an invariant operator of uncoupled bond with eigenvalues 4(vi2-Nivi) and the operator
Cij for coupled bonds are diagonal with matrix elements [13].
 Ni , vi; Nj ,vj Cij Ni ,vi ; Nj,vj  = 4[(vi + vj)2 - (vi + vj)(Ni+Nj
……………(7) while the operator Mij
has both diagonal and non-diagonal matrix elements
 Ni , vi; Nj ,vj Mij Ni ,vi ; Nj,vj  = (Nivj + Njvi – 2vivj)
 Ni , vi + 1; Ni ,vj -1 Mij Ni ,vi ; Nj,vj  = -[vj(vi +1)(Ni –vi)(Nj –vj + 1)]1/2
 Ni , vi - 1; Nj ,vj +1 Mij Ni ,vi ; Nj,vj  = -[vi(vj +1)(Nj –vj)(Ni –vi + 1)]1/2….…..(8)
The value of N( vibron number) can be determined by the relation
N=(e/exe)-1
---------------------------------- (9)
Where e and exe are the spectroscopic constants of diatomic molecules of stretching interaction of the
molecule considered.
Result and Discussion
The fitting parameters used in the study of vibrational spectra of Buckminsterfullerene(C60) is given in
Table 1:
Table 1: Fitting parameters* used in the study of Buckminsterfullerene(C60)
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Vibron number
Stretching parameters
N
A
/
 //
140
-2.122
0.845
-0.748
*A,  /,  //…all are in cm-1 whereas N is dimensionless.
Table 2: Vibrational energy levels(in cm-1) of Buckminsterfullerene(C60)
a
Modes/Irrep
Experimentala
Calculated
b
T1u
527
551.512
-24.512
T1u
576
551.512
+24.488
T1u
1182
1179.832
+2.832
T1u
1427
1416.432
+10.568
T2u
1177
1179.832
-2.832
Hu
1405
1416.432
-11.432
[ref. 23,24]
b
[ Experimental- Calculated]
 (r.m.s)=15.576cm-1
The model Hamiltonian (5) contains up to two body interactions. It is certainly possible to include in the
model Hamiltonian higher powers and products of Casimir operators. This may improve the vibrational
description considerably, especially for higher vibrational excitations. The interactions included in the
Hamiltonian assume the conservation of total number of quanta V .This means that the Darling-Dennison
interactions have been taken into account, but like Fermi resonances, have not been included in the model
Hamiltonian. The vibron number for C60 is calculated using eq. (9) which gives the number of bound states
in the molecule. Knowing the experimental data-base of C60 and using the model Hamiltonian we have
calculated the value of the algebraic parameters, A,  /,  //.
Conclusion
Using model Hamiltonian, we have presented an algebraic model of coupled one dimensional Morse
oscillators which can be used to describe C-C stretching vibrations of polyatomic molecules(C60) with good
accuracy. The present calculations demonstrate that U(2) model can be applied successfully to the molecules
having 60 number of atoms or even more than that. More accurate results can be obtained if the interaction
between the stretch and bend is considered.
References
F. Iachello (1981). Chem. Phys. Lett. 78, 581.
F. Iachello and R. D. Levine (1995). Algebraic theory of molecules. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.
F. Iachello, S. Oss and R Lemus (1991). J. Mol. Spectrosc. 146, 56.
F. Iachello, S. Oss and R Lemus (1991). J. Mol. Spectrosc. 149, 132.
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F. Iachello and S. Oss (2002). Euro. Phys. J. D19, 307.
F. Iachello and S. Oss (1991). Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 2976.
F. Iachello and S. Oss (1992). J. Mol. Spectrosc. 153, 225.
F. Iachello and S. Oss (1993). Chem. Phys. Lett. 205, 285.
F. Iachello and S. Oss (1993). J. Chem. Phys. 99, 7337.
G. Poschl and E. Teller (1933). Z. Phys. 83, 143.
J. L. Ping and J. Q. Chen (1997). Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 255, 75.
J. H. Clark and P. D. Mitchell (1975). J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. 2 71, 515.
J. Neugebauer, M. Reiher, C. Kind and B. A. Hess (2002). J Comput Chem 23: 895-910.
L. Halonen and M. S. Child (1983). J. Chem. Phys. 79, 559.
L. Halonen and M. S. Child (1982). Mol. Phys. 46, 239.
M. C. Martin, J. Fabian, J. Godard, P Bernier, J. M. Lambert and L. Mihaly (1995). Phys. Rev. B 5, 51.
N. K. Sarkar, J. Choudhury and R. Bhattacharjee (2006). Mol. Phys. 104, 3051.
N. K. Sarkar, J. Choudhury and R. Bhattacharjee (2007). An algebraic approach to the study of vibrational
spectra of OCS and its comparison to that of HCN using local-mode Hamiltonian, Proceedings of the 8th
Asian Thermophysical Properties Conference, Fukuoka, Japan (Paper no. 236).
R. Lemus and A. Frank (1994). J. Chem. Phys. 101, 8321.
R. D. Levine and C. E. Wulfman (1979). Chem. Phys. Lett. 60, 372.
R. J. Clark and D. M. Rippon (1971). J. Chem. Soc. D20, 1295.
S. Oss (1996). Adv. Chem. Phys. 93, 455.
T. Chakraborty and S. N. Rai (2006). Spectrochim. Acta A65, 406.
W. Y. Zeng and A. Anderson (1986). J. Raman Spectrosc. 18, 327.
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MIGRATION - CROSS BORDER STUDENT MOBILITY
Sahidul Ahmed* & Anek Lal Barman**
*Assistant professor, Ambedkar College, Fatikroy, Tripura, India.
** Assistant Professor, Ramkrishna Mahavidyalaya, Kailashahar, Tripura, India.
Corresponding author: Sahidul Ahmed
Abstract
The growth of knowledge-based economy has led to competition among employers worldwide for the best
brains and the best brains are also in competition for the best institution of higher education, where they
can raise their education and knowledge. Mobile students leave their country or territory of origin and move
to another country or territory to pursue higher education. This paper is mainly deals with the issues of
student Migration. The paper will help us to understand the definition of student Migration and the issues
related with Student Mobility.
Key words: mobile student, higher education, foreign country.
*******
Introduction
The growth of knowledge-based economy has led to competition among employers worldwide for the best
brains and the best brains are also in competition for the best institution of higher education, where they can
raise their education and knowledge. Up-to-date education and knowledge will help them to survive in this
age of globalization. Rapidly increasing demand for higher education, in turn, exceeds the capacity of many
countries to supply it domestically. Students themselves are also eager to advance their education and
knowledge, and if opportunity and resource permits, willing to do so by leaving their homeland and migrate
to another country.
Mobile students leave their country or territory of origin and move to another country or territory to pursue
higher education. It is hard to find a universally accepted definition of international students or mobile
students. The UIS (UNESCO institute of statistics) defines international students or mobile students on the
basis of several criteria which are: permanent residence, prior-education and citizenship. Countries are
defined international students or mobile students in accordance with their national system of education. The
following definitions are specific to national education system and specify how each included country
identifies the migrant students or international students or mobile students.
United Stated: Foreign students are defined as students who are enrolled at institutions of higher education
in the U.S., who are not citizen of the U.S.
Australia: International students are defined as those studying onshore with visa subclass 570 to 575,
excluding students on Australian funded scholarship or sponsorships or students undertaking study while in
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possession of other temporary visas.
United Kingdom: International students are defined as students who are not U.K. domiciled, and whose
normal residence is either in countries which were European union members as of 1 December of the
reporting period (EU student) or whose normal residence prior to commencing their programs of study was
outside the EU (non-EU student).
Japan: International students are defined as foreign nationals who study at any Japanese University,
graduate school, junior college, college of technology, professional training college or university preparatory
course on a college student visa, as defined by the immigration control and refuge recognition Act.
Germany: Foreign students are defined as mobile students; those who travel to Germany especially for
study.
New Zealand: International students are foreign nationals who travel to New Zealand for the purpose of
education and/or are currently studying on student permit or domestic passport.
Based on the above definition, we can concluded that international students or mobile students are basically
refers to those students, who are studying in foreign educational institution which can be either long term or
short term.
During the colonial period, the imperial government used to provide avenues for selected nationals to pursue
higher education in the imperial capital for the purpose of developing supportive administrative cadres in the
colonies(Verghese: 2008). Overseas education in the colonial period was based on Downward Filtration
Theory where it is assumed that the graduates would return to the homeland to serve the colonial
administration after developing the skills and absorbing the values of the colonial rulers.
After Second World War, higher education was more linked with the development needs of the country. The
experience of the post war reconstruction of European countries and post-colonial development of
developing countries showed that lack of qualified and trained manpower is the major constraints to the
promotion of development (Verghese: 2008). Thus many governments were launched several scholarship
programs for higher education to produce a few individual, who, after their education can train mass section
of people in their home country.
Trends in International Student Mobility
The numbers of student seeking higher education in foreign countries have been growing consistently over
the years. It increased by more than nine times since 1963 to 2007, this growth being particularly significant
after 1995. This increase in growth indicates an increasing demand for cross-border education. It is needless
to add that international students are bringing foreign exchange to the host countries.
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Table No. 1: Growth of International Students
Year
Total in Millions
Additional in Millions
1963
0.30
1968
0.13
0.43
1975
0.17
0.60
1980
0.20
0.80
1985
0.10
0.90
1990
0.30
1.20
1995
0.10
1.30
2000
0.60
1.90
2004
0.80
2.7 0
2007
0.10
2.80
Source: For 1963-2004 from Goodwin (1993); OECD (2006): UNESCO, (2009)
Who are the main senders of foreign students?
In 2007, over 2.8 million students are enrolled in educational institution outside of their country of origin.
About 900000 more students compared to 2000. Number of mobile student has been grown by 47.36 percent
since 2000 with a 6.77 percent growth per year.
China sent the maximum number of students aboard, amounting to almost 421000 in the year 2007. India
(153300) is placed second followed by Republic of Korea (105300) in respect of sending student in foreign
country. Germany (77500) is the fourth largest country who sent their students in foreign countries followed
by Japan (54500). Table 2 exhibits the number of the mobile students by their country of origin.
With the notable exceptions of china and India, most countries that produced significant numbers of foreign
students are high-or-middle income countries. The china and India exceptions may occur because of the
overall size of their populations and the presence of large and growing middle classes in population. In
addition, GDP is growing rapidly in china and India which naturally increases the per capita income of the
population.
Table 2: Mobile Students by their country of origin.
Countries / Territories
2000
2007
China
126519
421100
India
66621
153300
Korea
77983
105300
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Japan
64125
54500
Germany
63106
77500
France
60141
54000
U.S
--
50300
Malaysia
--
46500
Canada
--
43900
Source: UNESCO, (2009), Global Education Digest --Data not Available.
Who are the main receivers of foreign students?
United State of America attracts a large section of foreign students. In the year 2007, about 595874 numbers
of foreign students are studying in USA, 2007. Countries such as the United State America (22%), UK
(11%), Germany (10%), France (9%), Australia (6%) and Japan (4%) account for more than three fifths of
the foreign students. Table 3 shows the major destination countries of foreign students. The fastest
expansion of foreign students is experienced by Australia. Another interesting finding is: although the
influx of foreign student is highest in USA, they account for less than 3.4 per cent of total tertiary education
student in the USA. The share of foreign students to total enrolment is 28.00 per cent in New Zealand, 19.9
per cent in Australia, 16.6 per cent in UK, 11.2 per cent in Germany, 11 per cent in France and 10.6 per cent
in Canada.
Two new trends emerge when we compare the flow of mobile students in 1999 and 2007. First, mobile
students are more likely to stay within their regions of origin. Secondly, mobile students are now having a
wider choice in destinations. Certain countries are becoming more prevalent for tertiary studies and, thus are
newly emerging in the host countries.
Table 3: Students Mobility in Major Destination
Countries
2007
USA
595874
UK
351470
Australia
211526
Germany
206875
France
246612
Japan
125877
Canada
68520
Source: UNESCO, (2009), Global Education Digest
Which is the most popular field of study of foreign students?
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In 2007, almost one out of every four mobile students (23%) was enrolled in Business and Administration
programs. Science is the second most popular field, attracting 15 per cent of mobile students followed by
Engineering Manufacturing and Construction (14.4%) and Humanities and Arts (13.9). Only 3 per cent of
mobile students are enrolled in Education. Service attract just 2 per cent of mobile students and a very few
selects Agriculture. The preference of the students regarding their field of study varies by reason. For
example, in USA about 53 per cent of mobile students from south and west Asia studied Engineering,
manufacturing, Construction or Mathematics and Computer Science programs. On the other hand students
from Latin America and Caribbean seem to prefer Business and Administration (29%). Similarly, large
number of mobile students from Sub-Saharan Africa study Business and Administration (26%) (Global
Education Digest 2009).
Factors influencing student mobility in tertiary education
The growth in international student mobility is depending on various diving factors. They choose the
country and subject area of the study based on their calculations regarding the monetary and status reward a
foreign degree can bring. Student migrations in cross border tertiary education is depended on pull and push
factors (Altbach: 1997).The decision to study abroad and selection of region depends on a broad spectrum of
cultural, educational, economic and social factors (World Migration Report: 2008).The factors which
influence the decision of the student in selecting a foreign destination are:
1. Cost of Education is the most crucial factor that influence cross border student mobility. In the recent
time, there is a growth of self-financing students in cross border education. They (students or their
family) are paying their expenditure. The cost of education, return of education, living expenses have
become important element in deciding in which country to study.
2. Language is a decisive factor which influences student’s decision in selecting a country to study.
Similar or familiar language of the host country is important. The increasing share of intra-regional
flows with within Arab region may be partly due to the common language instruction. The language
familiarity may explain the increasing flow of foreign students to English speaking countries such as
USA, UK and Australia.
3. Superiority of the institution of the host countries is also a factor of student mobility. Generally
student moves from countries where the education system is less developed to countries where
education is more developed. The continuing flow of students from developing countries to
developed countries is due to the belief that the quality and standard of higher education offered in
developed countries are superior to what offered in the country of origin. For example, (intraregional flow) large number of students from Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal migrate to India to
pursue their higher education (Global Education Digest 2009).
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4. Student’s decision regarding selection of the country to study is also influenced by the employment
possibilities in the host countries and the country of origin. A host country will be more attractive if
student can work there after completing their studies or if their qualifications are highly regarded on
the local job market when they return home.
5. The faster economic growth and the improvement in income levels and standards of living have
certainly enhanced the paying capacity of those who seek cross border education. For example:
countries such as china, Korea, India, Malaysia have experienced a high rate of economic growth and
an increase in income which enable people to seek education aboard.
6. The climate, culture, tourist attraction and religion of the host country are the decisive factors for the
students.
7. The existence of network of student or former students from the country of origin affects the decision
of a student to choose a country.
8. Lack of recognition of degree obtained at home country can induce mobility.
Conclusion
The objective of cross-border education is changing. In the colonial period, it purposed was to develop
reliable and competent administrators. Cross-border education becomes a commercial activity, attracting
capital investment and producing good profits, in globalization age. The flow of mobile students is
continuing to developed countries from developing countries. Though, mobile students are now widening
their choice to select destination countries, still, USA is the most favourite destination.
Many host countries have increased the fees of foreign students by several times within the past two decades
(example USA). Since the flow of students is mostly from the developing to developed countries, this
implies that developing countries are contributing to subsidized higher education in developed countries.
Another interesting duality is that universities are public institutions that have maximum social welfare in
the host countries (developed countries), but the same universities are commercial venture in developing
countries.
References
Altbach, P.G., (1997), Comparative Higher Education: Knowledge, the University and Development.
Chestnut Hill: Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Goodwin, C.D., (ed.), (1993), International Investment in Human Capital: Overseas Education for
Development, Institute of International Education, New York.
OECD, (2006), Education at a Glance, Paris.
Source: www.oecd.org
UNESCO, (2009), Global Education Digest, Canada.
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Source: www.uis.unesco.org
Verghese, N.V., (2008), Globalization of Higher Education and Cross-Border Students Mobility.
Source: www.unesco.org/iiep
World Migration Report, 2008.
Source: www.iom.int/jahia
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PHONEME SEGMENTATION AND CLUSTERING OF ASSAMESE AND BODO LANGUAGES USING
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
Chandan Saloi, Department of Instrumentation & USIC, Gauhati University, Guwahati, India.
Abstract
The contributions of Artificial Neural Networks have been playing an important role in the field of Speech
Recognition. This can be used as phoneme classifier, isolated word recognizers and probability estimators of speech
recognizers. In this paper, we will basically discuss the segmentation of an isolated word of Assamese and Bodo
languages into phoneme by using Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) and clustering of the features by using Self
Organization Map (SOM) is described.
Keywords: MLP, SOM, segmenter, LPC cepstral coefficients
*******
Phoneme Segmentation
Segmentation of continuous speech into its corresponding phonemes has become very important issue in many speech
processing areas such as speech recognition, speech analysis, speech synthesis and speech database. Accurate and
reliable automatic phoneme segmentation is the crucial factor in satisfying the application requirement. A variety of
methods have been proposed to accomplish this phoneme segmentation [1,2,3]. Although some of them showed
acceptable performance, most of the methods rely heavily on a series of rules derived from acoustic phonetic
knowledge. However, these rule-based methods are very complex and hard to optimize their performance. The
performance degrades severely in the real application. In order to overcome these, neural networks has been proposed.
This neural network-based approach has several advantages over the conventional rule based method. Since it is not a
parametric model, it produces a robust performance under the unexpected environmental variations or the presence of
noise. Further, it needs not required assumption about the underlying analysis target. With these advancements,
several neural network based attempts have been made for the phoneme segmentation and obtained some encouraging
results [4,5].
In the present work, a new MLP-based phoneme segmentation method has been used for phoneme segmentation. The
original concept was proposed by Suh, Y and Lee, Y [6]. In their original work, they proposed Formant based features
for phoneme segmentation. In the present work, we use LPC-cepstral based features and better performance has been
achieved.
MLP-Based Phoneme Segmentation
In order to improve the drawback of rule-based method, an MLP-based neural network approach in the phoneme
segmentation has been adopted. The detection of the phoneme boundary has been considered as a kind of pattern
classification. MLP-based approaches have shown their notable nonlinear discrimination capability in the pattern
classification. To use this capability, attempt has been made to introduce well defined features to make patterns
representing the boundary and nonboundary of phonemes. Then the MLP has been trained to learn the capability of
detecting these boundaries and segmenting continuous speech into corresponding phoneme. In the present study, to
avoid excessive computational loads for feature extraction, the same feature set has been used for both segmentation
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and recognition purpose.
From the above primary features, we re-estimate the final features for phoneme segmenter input. Since, signal
variations are more prominent at the phoneme boundaries, these variations can be good cue in the phoneme
segmentation. To use this fact, we choose the final features, inter-frame features, as the differences between two
consecutive frame features. All these inter-frame features are then normalized to lie between -1 and +1 to be used in
MLP.
The MLP in the MLP-based phoneme segmenter has one hidden layer and an output layer. The 72 feature parameters
for four consecutive inter-frame features are finally served as input data because of their superior performance in the
experiment. The output layer has a single node that decides whether the second inter-frame is phoneme boundary or
not. In the hidden and output layer sigmoid has been used as activation function. In the hidden layer, the number of
hidden node has been changed through experiments.
Learning Algorithm
Modified Error Back Propagation method has been used as a learning algorithm [7]. The algorithm has the same
criterion of minimizing the mean-square error but converges much faster than the commonly used Error Back
Propagation method. The target data have the value +1 at the phoneme boundary and -1 or similar value on other
position. Four consecutive frame features are applied to the MLP and then shifted by one frame to learn all cases of
speech input patterns. The learning rate is set to 0.0005 and the initial weight values are randomly generated with the
range -5.0E-5 to +5.0E-5 for all cases.
Self-Organizing Map (SOM)
One of the objectives of the present work is to reduce the dimension of feature vectors by using SOM in speech
recognition problem. Figure (1) shows the diagram of the dimensional reduction by SOM. The dimensionality of the
acoustic feature vector (LP-cepstral coefficient) is reduced before feeding them into the recognizer block. In this
manner, the classification is highly simplified.
Dimensionality
reduction
Cepstral
Coefficie
Self-Organizing
Map (SOM)
Binary
Matrix
Figure 1: SOM transforms feature vectors generated by speech processing into binary matrix which performs
dimensionality reduction.
Kohonen (1988b, 1995 and 2002) [8,9,10] proposed a Neural Network (NN) architecture which can automatically
generate self-organization properties during unsupervised learning process, namely, a Self-Organizing Map (SOM).
All the input vectors of utterances are presented into the network sequentially in time without specifying the desired
output. After enough input vectors have been presented, weight vectors from input to output nodes will specify cluster
or vector centers that sample the input space such that the point density function of the vector centers tends to
approximate the probability density function of the input vectors. In addition, the weight vectors will be organized
such that topologically close nodes are sensitive to inputs that are physically similar in Euclidean distance. Kohonen
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has proposed an efficient learning algorithm for practical applications. This learning algorithm has been used in the
proposed system.
Using the fact that the SOM is a Vector Quantization (VQ) scheme that preserves some of the topology in the original
space (Villmann, 1999) [11], the basic idea behind the approach proposed in this work is to use the output of a SOM
trained with the output of the speech processing block to obtain reduced feature vector (binary matrix) that preserve
some of the behaviour of the original feature vector. The problem is now reduced to find the correct number of
neurons (Dimension of SOM) for constituting the SOM. Based on the ideas stated above, the optimal dimension size
of SOM has to be searched in order to ensure the SOM has enough neurons to reduce the dimensionality of the feature
vector while keeping enough information to achieve high recognition accuracy [12,13, 14].
SOM Architecture
The architecture of a SOM is shown in Figure (2). The SOM consists of only one real layer of neurons. The SOM is
arranged in a 2-D lattice. The 2-D SOM can be graphically represented for visual display. This architecture
implements similarity measure using Euclidean distance measurement. In fact, it measures the cosine of the angle
between normalized input and weight vectors. Since the SOM algorithm uses Euclidian metric to measure distances
between data vectors, scaling of variables was deemed to be an important step and all input vectors has been
normalized to the unity. The input vector is normalized between -1 and +1 before it is fed into the network. Usually,
the output of the network is given by the most active neuron as the winning neuron.
Figure 5.2: The 2-D SOM architecture
Learning Algorithm
The objective of the learning algorithm in SOM neural networks is the formation of the feature map which captures
the essential characteristics of the p-dimensional input data and maps them on the typically 2-D feature space. The
learning algorithm captures two essential aspects of the map formation, namely, competition and cooperation between
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neurons of the output lattice.
Assuming Mij (t ) = { m1ij(t), m2
ij
(t)………., mNij (t)} as the weight vector of node (i,j) of the feature map at time
instance t; i, j = 1, …, M are the horizontal and vertical indices of the square grid of output nodes, N is the dimension
of the input vector. Denoting the input vector at time t as X(t), the learning algorithm can be summarized as follows
(Kohonen, 1995; Anderson, 1999; Yamada et al., 1999)
[9, 15, 16]:
1. Initializing the weights
Prior to training, each node's weights must be initialized. Typically these will be set to small standardized random
values. The weights in the SOM in this research are initialized so that 0 < weight < 1.
2. Calculating the winner node - Best Matching Unit (BMU)
To determine the BMU, one method is to iterate through all the nodes and calculate the Euclidean distance between
each node's weight vector and the current input vector. The node with a weight vector closest to the input vector is
tagged as the BMU. The Euclidean distance is given as:
i n
Dist 
 ( X (t )  M
i
ij
(t )) 2
(1)
i 0
To select the node with minimum Euclidean distance to the input vector X(t):
X (t )  M i j (t )  min{ X (t )  M ij (t ) }
c c
(2)
i, j
Determining the Best Matching Unit's Local Neighborhood
For each iteration, after the BMU has been determined, the next step is to calculate which of the other nodes are within
the BMU’s neighbourhood. Radius of the neighborhood is calculated. Figure 4 shows an example of the size of a
typical neighborhood close to the commencement of training. The area of the neighborhood shrinks over time using
the exponential decay function:
 t
 (t )   0 exp   t=1,2,3,…. (3)
 
where σ0, denotes the width of the lattice at time = 0 and Q denotes a time constant. t is the current time-step. If a node
is found to be within the neighbourhood then its weight vector is adjusted as shown in next step.
Adjusting the weights
Every node within the BMU’s neighborhood including the BMU
(ic, jc) has its weight vector adjusted according to
the following equation:
M ij (t  1)  M ij (t )   (t )( X (t )  M ij (t ))
(4)
for ic-Nc(t)≤i≤ic+Nc(t)
and jc-Nc(t)≤j≤jc+Nc(t)
Mij(t+1)=Mij(t)
(5)
for all other indices (i,j)
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where t represents the time-step and α is a small variable called the learning rate, which decreases with time.
Basically, this means that the new adjusted weight for the node is equal to the old weight, plus a fraction of the
difference α between the old weight M and the input vector X. The decay of the learning rate is calculated each
iteration using the following equation (6):
 t
 (t )   0 exp   , t=1,2,3,…… (6)
 
Ideally, the amount of learning should fade over distance similar to the Gaussian decay.
So, an adjustment is made to equation (5) which shown as equation below:
M ij (t  1)  M ij (t )  (t ) (t )( X (t )  M ij (t ))
(7)
where θ represents the amount of influence a node's distance from the BMU has on its learning. θ(t) is given by
equation below:
 dist 2 
(t )  exp 2 , t=1,2,3,………
 2 (t ) 
(8)
where ‘dist’ is the distance a node is from the BMU and σ is the width of the neighbourhood function as calculated by
equation (3). Additionally, θ also decays over time.
5. Update time t = t + 1, add new input vector and go to Step 2.
6. Continue until α(t) approach a certain pre-defined value or t reach maximum iteration.
Figure (3) shows the flow of SOM learning algorithm. The learning algorithm repeatedly presents all the frames until
the termination condition is approached. The input vector is the cepstral coefficients. After training, the testing data is
fed into the feature map to form a binary matrix. These binary matrixes ill be used as input in MLP for classification.
The number in a binary matrix determines the number of input node in MLP.
Experiment
The feature vector, which is the output of the feature extraction block, has been normalized and then taken as the input
for phoneme segmentation block as well as feature clustering block. In the phoneme segmentation block features
vector obtained from 5 consecutive frames has been taken as input. Inter-frame differences between two consecutive
frames have been calculated and it is normalized between -1 to +1. Thus, for each block of 5 consecutive frames, 4
inter-frame differences have been obtained and each one of them contains 18 elements. These 72 elements will now
work as input to the MLP-based phoneme segmenter. In each pass the feature vectors will slide by one frame. In the
current system, we use 11 hidden nodes in the MLP which is found to be optimal in our case. It has been observed the
segmenter give 67% accuracy for 10 msec duration and 84% accuracy for 20 msec duration. The phoneme boundaries
are marked and features vectors for each phoneme are now separated.
The feature trajectory obtained from recorded speech of each phoneme is now passes through a time wrapping
mechanism to make them of equal length and then clustered into six clusters using Kohonen SOM algorithm.
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Start
Randomly initialize
weight vectors
Obtain a training pattern
and apply to input
Determine winner node
with minimum Euclidean
Update weights (nodes
within neighborhood set
Decrease gain α(t) &
neighborhood set
Update time t = t + 1
t >= max or
α(t) <= 0
No
Yes
Save the
trained map
STOP
Figure 3: Flow chart of SOM learning algorithm
Figure: 4: Kohonen net input for the Bodo phoneme /aa/ of the word ‘Aalu”
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Kohonen self-organized map Epoch=100
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
x2
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
x1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Feature value for each parameter
Figure: 5: Kohonen Self-organized map for the Bodo phoneme /aa/ of the word ‘Aalu”
Feature vector extracted from each frame
Feature value for each parameter
Figure: 6: Feature set before clustering for the Bodo phoneme /aa/ of the word ‘Aalu”
Feature vector for the centroid of the six clusters
Figure: 7: Feature set after clustering for the Bodo phoneme /aa/ of the word ‘Aalu”
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Conclusion
In Figure: (4) Kohonen net input for the Bodo phoneme /aa/ of the word ‘Aalu” has been shown. These are
represented with dots. The input data has been read from speech input pattern and saved into an array. Input Vector is
used to store the total number of the cepstral coefficients for training. The input arrays are then normalized in order to
fasten the process of the convergence and make the network training more efficient. Weights are initialized the
weights to random values with closer range between -1 and +1 and saved into the array weights according to the
dimension of SOM (X1 and X2) as obtained. The network is trained until it reaches maximum epoch. First, the input
vector from input arrays is chosen randomly for learning and a function used to determine the winner node with
smallest distance with the input array among all the nodes. The weight vector of these nodes that lie within a nearest
neighborhood set of the winner node is updated. The learning constant and neighborhood set both decrease
monotonically with time according to T. Kohonen’s algorithm [80]. This process is repeated until the maximum
epoch is achieved as shown in Fig. (5), where the maximum epoch is represented by the dots.
The feature trajectory obtained from recorded speech of each phoneme is passes through a time wrapping mechanism
to make them of equal length and then clustered into six clusters using Kohonen SOM algorithm. In Fig. (6), 18element Feature vector extracted from all the frames of the utterance of the Bodo phoneme /aa/ of the word “aalu” set
before clustering has been depicted; each element is represented by the different coloured line and the Figure: (7)
depicts the Feature set after clustering for the Bodo phoneme /aa/ of the word ‘Aalu”; the six different lines represent
the six different clusters.
References
Anderson, S. E. (1999). Speech Recognition Meets Bird Song: A Comparison of Statistics-based and Template-based
Techniques. Journal of Acoust. Soc. Am.
Buniet, L. and Fohr, D. (1995), Continuous Speech Segmentation with the Gamma Memory Model, Proc. Of
EUROSPEECH’95, 1685-1688.
Gavat, I., Valsan, Z. and Sabac, B. (1998). Combining Self-Organizing Map and Multilayer Perceptron in a Neural
System for Improved Isolated Word Recognition. Communication98. 245-255.
Lee, Y. and Oh, S.H. (1994), Improving the error back-propagation algorithm, Proc. ICONIP’94, pp.772-777.
Kangas, J., Torkkola, K. and Kokkonen, M. (1992). Using SOMs as Feature Extractors for Speech Recognition. IEEE
International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP92).
Kohonen, T. (1988). Self-Organization and Associative Memory. New York: Spring Verlag.
Kohonen, T. (1995). Self-Organizing Maps. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Kohonen, T. (2002). Self-Organizing Neural Networks - Recent Advances and Applications. Studies in Fuzziness and
Soft Computing. 78: 1-12.
Rubio, A.J. and Reilly, R.G. (1995), Preliminary Result on Speech Signal Segmentation with Recurrent Neural
Networks, Proc. Of EUROSPEECH’95, PP.2197-2200.
Salmela, P., Kuusisto, S. S., Saarinen, J., Laurila, K. and Haavisto, P. (1996). Isolated Spoken Number Recognition
with Hybrid of Self-Organizing Map and Multilayer Perceptron. Proceedings of the International Conference on
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Neural Networks (ICNN’96). 3: 1912-1918.
Schwatz, R. and Makhoul, J (1975). Where the phonemes are: Dealing with Ambiguity in Acoustic-phonetic
Recognition, IEE Trans. ASSP, Vol. 23, 50-53.
Suh, Y. and Lee, Y., Phoneme Segmentation of Continuous Speech using Multi-layer Perceptron, Internet.
Villmann, T. (1999). Topology Preservation in Self-Organizing Maps. Kohonen Maps, Elsevier. 279-292.
Weinstein, C.J., McCandless, S.S., Mondeshin, L.F. and Zue, V. W. (1975). A system for Acoustic –phonetic Analysis
of Continuous Speech, IEE Trans ASSP Vol. 23, 54-67.
Yamada, T., Hattori, M., Morisawa, M. and Ito, H. (1999). Sequential Learning for Associative Memory Using
Kohonen Feature Map. International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN’99). 3: 1920-1923.
Zue, V.W (1985). The use of Speech Knowledge in Automatic Speech Recognition, Proceedings of The IEEE, vol.
73, 1602-1615.
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SAMUEL MENASHE – “THE NEGLECTED MASTER”
Sreekanth Kopuri, Assistant Professor of English, Sri Vasavi Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Nandamur, Pedana Mandal, Machilipatnam, India.
Abstract
With a battle behind and a promised land ahead, Samuel Menashe’s poetry emerges in a cluster of silent
and mysterious voices introducing a refined art that reflects his long confinement to an isolation that had
finally bred an experimental voice the tradition of which is Dickensonian Frostian and Amichaian in its
brevity. His poetry has a voice that unconsciously longs to reach “the promised land” but is uncertain at
times with a defeat into atheistic withdrawal which echoes in the form of isolation. Alternating between a
Jewish belief in God and an agnostic uncertainty, confronting with life, his poetry culminates in the art of
precision which is unique and avant-garde. Menashe stood as a source of inspiration for many great
contemporary writers who carry his legacy for the future.
Key Words: silence, isolation, precision, Jewish
*******
“To shame the one who knows
Mud does not stain
Clay he’s made of” (B. Ricks. 66)
The greatest literature is in the simplest language. In the din of the contemporary American literary market
there are a lot of unnoticed substantial pens unfortunately clouded by the contest for variety of verses and
theories. In the international showcase where the contemporary literary journals like American Poetry
Review, Critical Quarterly, Black Warrior Review, Agni, New Yorker blare the popular stuff of the day,
there are many silent volumes – trend-setting masterpieces – that need attention of the readers and authentic
appreciation. Despite being under clouds, some voices are too silent to be ignored. It is the deceptive simple
voice of another important Jewish profile of a wandering background like that of Albert Einstein or Sigmund
Freud or Karl Mar but, not much known; not even to the world of literature until the Poetry Foundation had
for the first time honoured him with “Neglected Masters Award” but which he modestly thanks saying, “I
never intended to be a poet or wanted to be a poet.” (NPR). After this achievement he was reconsidered in
the New York literary scene where he was once disregarded. It’s Samuel Menashe Weisberg who needs an
introduction which would give start to break the posthumous silence of his art and expand the possibility of
contemporary literature. He was the last poet-warrior of WWII and a bohemian New Yorker. Time and fate
shaped him to be what he is today which he never intended to be of which he says, “One night, I woke up in
the middle of the night and a poem started.” (B.Ricks. XV) His experimentation won for him the admirers
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like Kathleen Raine, Stephen Spender, Sylvia Townsend Warner, Donald Davie, P.N.Furbank, Calvin
Bedient and Hugh Kenner. This is a poet and hermit with an abnormal simple life of living in three rooms
always stuffed with stacks of papers and books for fifty five years spent most of his productive time at
lonely reading table near his home widow, wearing only one pair of shoes and a tie till they are worn-out.
While in private in Greenwich Village or elsewhere with his friends or new acquaintances, he would talk
continuously about William Blake or war or about Hebrew Bible. A septuagenarian on the last day of his
life, his wish is fulfilled and established an ideal Menasheisque stuff for the succeeding generations of poets.
Menashe who lived a life of self-effacement basically belongs to the Dickensonian School of poetry
especially with the art of finest precision and unpunctuated lines.
Maturity comes with experience which comes with age and for a poet the sum of what he is and the
substance of his art together brings out a distilled masterpiece with a maturity that puts in an artistically set
order. In the poem “Salt and Pepper” he says:
Age seasons me
Gives me zest (Menashe 88)
A retrospective and artistically systematic construction of an anthology of poetry or for that matter any art
needs to fathom the memories – “emotions recollected in tranquility.” As he was never married Menashe
most of his life lived in the world of memories constructing them into poetry. “Menashe’s memory is of
someone who loved life.” (4) William Carlos Williams rightly says:
“Memory is a kind of accomplishment, a sort of renewal even an initiation, since the spaces it opens are
new places inhabited by hordes heretofore unrealized, of new kinds – since their movements
are toward new objectives” (Carlos Williams, 73)
Menashe’s poetry circles around past and present and his timeless tradition of apolitical Zionism the integral
part of which he expresses a continual sense of being lost in a hopeless world as the holocaust writers like
Elie Weisel, Paul Cealn though he is in fact not. This sense of isolation and the theme of holocaust are not
found in his poetry directly except at places like in the poem “Daily Bread.” Perhaps this sense of being lost
comes partially from his Second World War memories which are allusive in his poetry. As in most cases of
the contemporary poetry where the face of the poem, its stylistics and mood are the indices of the writer’s
life; so does Menashe’s poetry making transparent the narrowest possible structure of his poems which
metaphorises the narrow confines of his squalid home his hermit-like existence.
“The most remarkable quality of his writing is precision and “brevity….(which)….is the soul of his wit.”
(Ratcliffe, Susan. 499)
David Orr says:
“ Menashe is a curious and meticulous writer — the poems here are no longer than a page, most have very
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short lines, they're either unpunctuated or very carefully and lightly punctuated, and they rely on tricky
rhyme and assonance schemes to carry observations that Ricks describes as "apophthegms" and a
nonprofessor might call "proverbs." (nytimes)
His art is highly distilled and is sharpened to the narrowest possible extent, substantially bony enough to
reveal an experience. The following defining lines of his poetry,
“The niche narrows
Hones one thin
Until his bones
Disclose him” (Davie. 86)
are monumental and are worth classicizing him as one of the greatest poets of our times. The unpuncuated
and ungrammatical lines of his poetry open doors to a prism of implications. The poem “The Niche”
connects a reader to recurring layers of meaning. For example the first line “The niche narrows” refers to
both his art of poetry and also has an autobiographical element of his long narrowly confined existence in
“niche narrows” which is his home and also poetry which is also equally his home narrowed to be a most
refined artist. This kind of technique is allusive of Robert Frost’s. The poem “Promised land” is another
example of this kind. In the poem we see him stranded in some narrowest confines some where he considers
himself an exile. The vision of river, which is beyond his reach, entices him makes him feel more isolated
and long for the “the land flowing with milk and honey” (King James Version) The more he longs for it the
more he writes. The physical-transcendental-physical pattern of the poem opens into a world beyond the
human grasp which he contemplates in terms of the Old Testament standing between the visible and the
invisible:
“At the edge
Of a World
Beyond my eyes
Beautiful
I know Exile
Is always
Green with hope—
The river
We cannot cross
Flows forever” (B. Ricks. 72)
The poem invokes the tragedy of the Old Testament prophet Moses who does not see the Promised Land
when the wrath of God comes upon him for his harsh rebukes of the Israelites. The poem also refers to his
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state of long loneliness in his unmarried state of life and the mystery of human life after death symbolized
by “The river.” So Menashe’s poetry is life time practice of the art of precision and mastering of the short
poem. In most poems he maintains a standard of ten lines. Very few poems cross this count.
Most poems of Samuel Menashe like Yehuda Amichai’s are Jewish in their theme. The imagery of the Old
Testment pervades most of his poems. His poems are allusive of the tone and music of the Song of Solmon
and David’s Psalms. His poems are like meditations to God for whom he often longs. The poem “Stone
Would Be Water” evokes the image in Exodus 17 Verse 5 in which we see Israelites quarrel with Moses
when they are thirsty amidst a long Journey at a place called Mount Horeb where God says to Moses: “thou
shalt smite the rock, and there shall come water out of it, that the people may drink.” (King James Version).
In the first two lines of the poem we can see the Menashe’s strong faith in God and his hope of future and
his reverence towards his “God chosen” race of Jewish community which implicates the spirit of Zionism
which hopes that all the Jews who are scattered around the world will gather in the “Promised Land” one
day like water with a rock-like determination. And he also hopes that they would be in the most prestigious
positions of the world where none can reach. The following lines from the poem “Stone Would Be Water”
reflect this theme:
“Stone would be water
But it cannot undo
Its own hardness
Rocks might run
Wild as torrents
Plunged upon the sky
By cliffs none climb” (Menashe. 70)
A man and a poet and a war veteran who has quenched his thirst at last by his outstanding contribution to the
contemporary poetry especially by his tireless practice of the art of precision Samuel Menashe got his due as
“Neglected Master” and his poems occupy an important place in the postmodern poetry. The following most
quoted lines speak that Menashe has fulfilled his wish of what he dreamt of:
A pot poured out
Fulfills its spout (11)
References
B.Ricks, Christophor. New and Selected Poems. New York: Library of America (2005), 66.
Carlos W. Pictures from Brueghel and Other Poems. New York: New Directions Publishing, (1962). (Name
of the Poem: The Descent, Lines: 3 to 10)
Davie, D. et al. Penguin Modern Poets. London: Penguin Books Ltd (1996). (Lines: 1, 2, 3, 4) Samuel
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Menashe: A Poet Gets His Due, November 2006. Web 20 August 2013
Menashe, S. The niche narrows: new and selected poems. Greenfield: Talisman House Publishers (2000),
88.
Ratcliffe, S. ed. Oxford Treasury of Sayings and Quotations. Oxford University Press (2011), 499.
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/19/books/review/19orr.html?pagewanted=print
Exodus 3:8, King James Version
Exodus 17:5, King James Version
New and Selected Poems. 72 (Lines 1 to 10)
New and Selected Poems. P.XV
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STRUCTURAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF CuO MODIFIED SnO2 NANOPARTICLES
Navnita Kumari, Reseach Scholar, Department of Physics, NIT Silchar, Assam, India
Abstract
Polycrystalline pure and doped SnO2 nanoparticles were prepared by co-precipitation method where
stannic tetrachloride pentahydrate were used as precursor ammonium hydroxide as precipitating agent and
cuprous sulphate pentahydrate as a source of dopants. The obtained powders used for structural,
morphological and compositional characterization by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and field emission scanning
electron microscopy (FESEM) along with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The obtained
crystallites size were in the range of 50 nm – 40 nm which is also confirmed by FESEM and no any further
impurity were obtained by EDS spectra. Porosity increases with CuO modified SnO2 nanoparticles and this
property of increases in porosity which has been used for H2S gas sensor fabrication.
Key words: Structure, Crystallites, Porosity, Sensor
*******
Introduction
Most of the well-known and widely used transparent conducting oxides such as ZnO, SnO2 and ITO are ntype material [1]. SnO2 is a well known n-type wide bandgap semiconductor with a direct band gap of about
3.65 eV (at 300 k). Kim et al. have also reported an indirect band gap of about 2.7 eV in SnO2 [2]. The
structural and morphological properties of semiconductor oxides have a substantial effect on their optical,
electrical and gas sensing properties [3]. SnO2 is an industrially important material which is used in
numerous purposes where the application specific electrical optical and mechanical properties are desired.
Performance of SnO2 is directly related to particle size and compositional characteristics. Consequently
performance of SnO2 is a strong function of the synthesis process used to generate the material. The
efficiency of SnO2 based devices have been improved by reducing the size of SnO2 particles and/or by
adding dopants (typically noble metals or other metal oxides). Traditionally thickly deposited SnO2 ceramics
are used which is prepared by the compaction of fine SnO2 powder under high pressure [4] or by use of
isostatic pressing [5]. One of the primary methods for using SnO2 in device application is the use of
sintering additives. Various oxides has been used as sintering aids to densify SnO2 like ZnO, Nb2O5, MnO,
Li2O or CuO. CuO has been found to be particularly effective because low concentrations ( 1 wt %) of
CuO are enough to yield good densification of SnO2 [6, 7]. CuO is a p-type semiconductor having a
bandgap of 1.2 eV. The gas sensing capability of SnO2 has been reported to increases by CuO doping,
especially for H2S sensing in thin films, pellets [8]. The ionic radii value of Sn4+  0.069 nm and that for
Cu2+  0.073 nm, as the radii of these two compounds are very close to each other they are compatible for
doping without any serious changes in the crystallite structure. SnO2 is known to have a tetragonal rutile
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structure whereas CuO having monoclinic structure.
In this paper we are reporting the effect of structural and morphological changes due to modification of CuO
in SnO2 nanoparticles. The change in crystallite size, lattice parameters, cell volume, and porosity has been
calculated and analyzed for favourable properties in device fabrication mechanism. The change in
morphology and incorporation of Cu ions in SnO2 matrix were observed and discussed.
Experimental details
SnO2 powder was prepared by the co-precipitation method in which ammonia (NH4OH) solution was added
to stannic tetrachloride pentahydrate (SnCl4.5H2O) solution. In this process, 2 g of stannic tetrachloride
pentahydrate is dissolved in 100 ml of water. After complete dissolution, 4 ml of ammonia solution
(NH4.OH) is added to the above aqueous solution with continuous stirring for 20 minutes in to the solution
drop wise under strong stirring until the pH of the solution reaches to 8. White slurry like precipitate is
immediately formed. It is allowed to settle for 12 hours. It is then filtered and purified, and the obtained
mixture is dried for 24 hours at 70 °C. The dried powder is crushed and heated at 600 °C for 4 hours. The
resulting mass was then crushed into fine powder form. The final product was white colour powder. Cu
doped SnO2 powders were prepared also by co-precipitation method. Cu doped SnO2 were prepared in a
similar manner, by adding 1 wt. % of CuSO4.5H2O into SnCl4.5H2O solution. The products were light
greenish in colour. Finally, both the pure and CuO modified SnO2 powders were calcined at 600°C for 4
hours under ambient atmosphere and further used for characterization techniques.
Characterization techniques
Characterizations of the phases in these calcined specimens were carried out by X-ray diffraction using
PANalytical X’Pert Pro X-ray Diffractometer system with Cu-Kα radiation (λ = 0.15418 nm) as X-ray
source at 40 kV and 30 mA. The diffractograms were obtained in the scanning angle (2θ) from 20° to 80°.
For the microstructural observations, the samples were also studied by field emission scanning electron
microscopy along with energy dispersive spectroscopy (FESEM-EDS with HITACHI model no. S 4800) to
verify the particle size and composition.
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Results and discussion
The XRD pattern of the samples prepared is shown in Fig. 1.
30
60
60
(321)
(202)
(310)
(112)
(301)
(220)
(002)
(200)
20
Undoped SnO 2
(211)
30
(101)
40
0
(110)
Intensity (arb. units)
40
(211)
(101)
(110)
1 at% CuO m odified SnO 2
(321)
(202)
10
(310)
(112)
(301)
(200)
(220)
(002)
20
0
30
60
Position (2  )
Figure-1: XRD pattern of samples
The observed XRD pattern was analyzed using X-pert Highscore software using the search-match tool. It
was found to match with the ICDD-Powder diffraction pattern (JCPDS file no.71-0652). The crystallite size
was calculated by using the Debye Scherrer (DS) formula
D
0.89
..............................................(1)
 cos 
where λ is the wavelength of incident X-ray (λ = 0.1541 nm), β is the half of maximum line width, θ is the
angle at which maximum peak occurs. From the diffraction pattern we observed the formation of
polycrystalline SnO2 where no any extra peaks of Cu were observed in XRD pattern which concludes that
Cu is incorporated in SnO2 lattice with no further change in phase, 1 at % Cu doped SnO2 nanoparticles with
crystallite size 50 nm and 45 nm for undoped and doped nanoparticles. The radii of Sn4+ and Cu2+ are
comparable (0.069 nm and 0.073 nm, respectively, according to Shannon and Perwitt tables), which means a
small solubility of CuO in SnO2 is not expected to change the cell parameters of the solid solution very
much. In materials with low CuO contents, therefore, XRD cannot be used to discriminate between the two
possible cases of (i) copper segregated in Cu-containing secondary phases or (ii) copper dissolved in a SnO2ONLINE ISSN No. : 2348-618X
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based solid solution. In fact, the sensitivity of XRD is insufficient to allow the detection of a low
concentration of any CuO- rich secondary phase or of a solid-solution but we observed some change in
lattice parameters due to doping. The lattice constants ‘a’ and ‘c’ for tetragonal rutile phase structure have
been calculated by using the relation [9].
1  h2  k 2

d 2  a2
  l2
 2
 c

 ............................................(2)

where, ‘d’ is interplanar spacing and (h k l) are Miller indices, and a, c and u are lattice parameters
respectively.
The X-ray density (ρx), experimental density (ρa) and porosity (P) of the synthesized SnO2 nanoparticles
were also calculated using the following relations [10]
x 
nM
...................................................(3)
Na 2c
a 
m
.........................................................(4)
v
  
P  1  a  100%.................................................(5)
 x 
In these equation n is the number of molecules per unit cell, M is the molecular weight, a and c are the
lattice constant parameters, N is the Avogadro’s number while m, v are the mass and volume respectively of
the samples.
The porosity thus calculated has been found to be 54.14% and 66.72% for undoped SnO2, and 1 at % Cu
doped SnO2 respectively shown in table-1. Much attention has been paid to detect H2S gas and develop H2S
sensing materials [8, 11-13] using CuO doped SnO2. The Cu–SnO2 thin films are found to exhibit
extraordinary sensing characteristics to H2S gas. Based on our porosity calculations we expect that the
present sample can be an extremely efficient material for H2S gas sensing.
Figure 2 represents the FESEM micrographs. It is observed from these micrographs that particle size  50
nm as predicted from the XRD data is possible in case of the samples under study. FESEM images also
shows that the particles tend to agglomerate and exhibit a varied distribution in terms of particle shape and
size though the texture remains more or less uniform. Along with FESEM, EDS was also performed on
these samples which confirmed that the samples were composed of Sn, Cu and O only. No other impurities
were reported in EDS as shown in Figure 3.
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Figure 2: FESEM micrograph of undoped and doped samples
Figure 3: EDS spectra of undoped and doped nanoparticles
Table-1
U=c/a
Crystallite Lattice
Size
Sample
(nm)
Cell volume
(Å)
D Constant
(Å)
Porosity
a=4.6806,
Undoped SnO2
50
1 at % Cu doped
SnO2
c=3.1628
0.675725334 69.29067414 54.14%
a=4.7712,
45
c=3.2106
0.672912475 73.08722031 66.72%
From table it is evident that with doping in pure type of SnO2 nanoparticles crystallite size decreases and
porosity increases due to which this CuO modified SnO2 nanoparticles can be used for H2S gas sensor
fabrication which is hazardous for environment.
Conclusion
Polycrystalline undoped and doped SnO2 nanoparticles were prepared by co-precipitaion route with
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crystallite size less than 50 nm. Crystallite size, morphological and compositional properties of prepared
samples were characterized by XRD, FESEM along with EDS which confirms the prepared samples were of
in the nanosize and no any further impurities were detected in EDS. Crystallite size decreases with
modification of CuO in pure SnO2 nanoparticles lattice constants and cell volume increases which results in
increase in porosity of CuO modified SnO2 samples. This is good sign for preparation of environmental
monitoring gas sensor especially for H2S gas sensor detection.
References
B. D. Cullity, Elements of X-ray Diffraction, Addison-Wesley, New York, 1978.
H. Kim, C.M. Gilmore, A. Pique, J. S. Horwitz, H. Mattoussi, H. Murata, Z. H. Kafafi, D. B. Chrisey,
Electrical, optical, and structural properties of indium tin oxide thin films for organic light-emitting devices,
Journal of Applied Physics 86, 1999, 6451-6461.
J. Lalande, R. O. Fichet, P. Boch, Sintering behaviour of CuO-doped SnO2, Journal of Eurupean Ceramic
Society 20 (2000) 2415-2420.
J. P. Ahn, J. K. Park, M. Y. Huh, Effect of green density on the subsequent densification and grain growth
of ultrafine SnO2 powder during isochronal sintering, Journal of American Ceramic Society 80, 1997, 21652167.
J. P. Bonnet, N. Dolet, J. M. Heintz, Low temperature sintering of 0.99 SnO2-0.01 CuO: influence of copper
surface diffusion, Journal of European Ceramic Society 16, 1996, 1163-1169.
J. Tamaki, T. Maekawa, N. Miura, and N. Yamazoe, CuO-SnO2 Element for highly sensitive and selective
detection of H2S in 6th International Conf. on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators (Transducers 91 ), San
Francisco, California, 1991, 197-203.
L. A. Patil, D. R. Patil, Heterocontact type CuO-modified SnO2 sensor for the detection of a ppm level H2S
gas at room temperature, Sensors and Actuators B-Chemical 120, 2006, 316-323.
M. Abdullah Dar, K. Mujasam Batoo, V. Verma, W.A. Siddiqui, R.K. Kotnala, Synthesis and
characterization of nano size pure and Al-doped lithium ferrite, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 493,
2010, 553-560.
M. F. Garcia, J. A. Rodriguez, Metal oxide nanoparticles, Nanomaterials: Inorganic and Bioinorganic
Perspectives, BNL-79479-2007-BC.
M. Yoshinaka,
K. Hirota, , M. Ito, H. Takano, O. Yamaguchi, Hot isostatic pressing of reactive
SnO2 powder, Journal of American Ceramic Society 82(1), 1999, 216-218.
T. Minami, New n-type transparent conducting oxides, MRS Bulletin 8, 2000, 38-44.
X. H. Kong, Y. D. Li, High sensitivity of CuO modified SnO2 nanoribbons to H2S at room temperature,
Sensors and Actuators B-Chemical 105, 2005, 449-453.
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X. Y. Xue, L. L. Xing, Y. J. Chen, S. L. Shi, Y. G. Wang, and T. H. Wang, Synthesis and H2S sensing
properties of CuO-SnO2 core/shell PN junction nanorods, Journal of Physical
Chemistry C 112, 008, 12157-12160.
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STUDY OF POLARIZATION PROPERTIES OF COMET BRADFIELD 1987 P1 USING
AGGREGATE DUST MODEL AND ITS COMPARISON WITH COMET NEAT C/2001 Q4
S. R. Das*, D. Paul** & H. S. Das***
*Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Govt. Degree College, Dharmanagar, Tripura, India.
**Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Ramkrishnanagar College, Assam, India.
***Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Assam University, Silchar, India.
Corressponding Author: S. R. Das
Abstract
Polarimetry in the continuum is a good technique to study the nature of cometary dust. The study of
cometary dust gives valuable information about the least processed and pristine materials of early solar
nebula from which the present day solar system has been evolved some 4.5 billion years ago. In the present
work, the observed linear polarization data of Comet Bradfield have been analyzed using aggregate dust
model. The best fitting values of complex refractive indices are generated using Superposition T-matrix
code, which can well match the observed polarization data. It is found from our analysis that the mixed
composition of silicates and organics can best fit the observed polarization data of Comet C/Bradfield (1987
P1) which are in good agreement with the in situ measurement of comets by different spacecrafts.
Key words: comets: general – dust, extinction – scattering – polarization.
*******
Introduction
Comets, the frozen detritus composed of ices, gases, and dust extant at the time of formation of the giant
planets, record the processes of formation and early evolution (4.5 billion years ago) of small icy bodies and
the “cold-storage” aging of the nearly pristine samples of outer solar nebula materials (Stern 2003). In the
visible wavelength range, a number of comets have been observed to date. As is not sufficient to infer the
properties of cometary dust solely from the observational data the laboratory simulations of solar radiation
scattered by cometary dust have been carried out to better understand the properties of dust (Giese 1980;
Greenberg & Gustafson 1981; Gustafson & Kolokolova 1999; Munoz et al. 2000; Hadamcik et al. 2002).
The polarization measurement of the scattered radiation gives valuable information about the shape, size and
structure of the dust particles. It is now well accepted that the dust grains are porous with irregular shape
(Greenberg &Hage 1990; Xing & Hanner1997; Kimura et al. 2001, 2006 etc). Das et al. (2008a, b) have
studied linear & circular polarization measurements of several comets and their studies successfully
explained the nature of cometary dust particles. Recently, Paul et al. (2010) have studied the observed
polarization data of comet NEAT and successfully analyzed the dust scattering properties.
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Aggregates Dust Model
Our calculations have been successfully performed with Superposition T-matrix code for Ballistic ClusterCluster Aggregate (BCCA) and Ballistic particle- Cluster Aggregate (BPCA) up to 128 monomers. These
aggregates are built by hitting randomly and sticking particles together. Actually, BPCA clusters are more
compact than BCCA clusters (Mukai et al. 1992). A systematic study on dust aggregate model is already
discussed on different comets (Das et al. 2008a, b). The observed polarization data of comet Bradfield has
been taken from Kikuchi et al. (1989), Chernova et al. (1993).
The individual monomer in a cluster acts as key role in scattering simulations, which is seen in several
works on aggregate dust model (Kimura et al. 2003,2006; Petrova et al. 2004; Hadamcik et al. 2006; Bertini
et al. 2007; Das et al. 2008a,b). Here, the monomer radius (am) is taken in the range (0.09-0.195) µm. The
size parameter of monomer is computed by x=2πam/λ.
It has been found that the morphology of the dust particles does not play any major role in determination of
shape parameter of the dust (Kimura 2001; Kimura et al. 2003, 2006; Kolokolova et al. 2006;
Lasue&Levasseur-Regourd 2006; Bertini et al. 2007; Das et al. 2008a,b). It has also been shown that the
polarization depends weakly on the number of monomer (N), when the size of dust is comparable to or
larger than the wavelength of incident light (Kimura 2001; Kimura et al. 2006; Mann et al. 2004; Petrova et
al. 2004; Vilapplana et al. 2006; Moreno & Molina 2006; Bertini et al. 2007; Das et al. 2008a, b).
Numerical Simulations
The Superposition T-matrix code, which gives rigorous solutions for ensembles of spheres (Mackowski &
Mishchenko 1996) have been used for the study of light scattering by the aggregates BPCA and BCCA. The
observed linear polarization data of comets Bradfield and NEAT at λ = 0.485μm are taken from Kiku chi et
al. (1989), Chernova et al. (1993 ) and Ganesh et al. 2009.
²-minimization technique is used to find the best fitting values of (n, k), which can well match the observed
polarization data (Das et al. 2008, a, b). It has been found that the monomers am=0.111 µm (x=1.439) for
comet Bradfield at the same wavelength
provide good result on the maximum and negative
branch of linear polarization. The calculation has been done for BCCA aggregates with 128 monomers. Also
the best fit obtained for comet NEAT are n=1.755, k=0.097 and am = 0.125 (Paul et al. 2010). The
polarisation vs. scattering angle for Bradfield and NEAT are shown below in Fig1 and Fig2 respectively.
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25
best fit
Polarization (in %)
20
15
10
5
0
-5
110
120
130
140
150
Scattering angle (in degrees)
160
170
180
Fig:1 [Polarization values as observed at wavelength λ=0.485 µm. for comet Bradfield by Kikuchi et al.
(1989), Chernova et al. (1993). The solid curve represents the best fitting polarization curve obtained for
BCCA particles with 128 monomers at λ=0.485 µm. Here n=1.905, k=0.069 & am=0.111 µm.
30
'neat248'
25
Polarization (in %)
20
15
10
5
0
-5
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Scattering angle (in degrees)
Fig:2 [Polarization values as observed at wavelength λ=0.485 µm. for comet NEAT by Ganesh et al.
(2009). The solid curve represents the best fitting polarization curve obtained for BCCA particles with 128
monomers at λ=0.485 µm. Here =1.755, k=0.097&(am) =0.125µm.]
Discussion
The negative polarization behaviour of comet is one of the major features observed in comets. Several
comets show negative polarization beyond 1570 scattering angle (Kikuchi et al., 1987; Chernova et al., 1993;
Ganesh et al., 1998 etc.). Interestingly, all comets show very similar characteristics of negative polarization
(minimum value of polarization ~ – 2 % near 1700 and inversion angle at 200 – 22 0).
Comet Bradfield was observed over a wide scattering angle range (110 0 to1770),. In the present work, it is
interesting to observe that the used dust aggregate model reproduce the negative polarization behaviour
beyond 1570 for both the comets Bradfield and NEAT.
It can be seen that the refractive indices coming out from the present calculation is closed to the refractive
indices of silicates and organics. Again the in situ measurements of comet Halley (Lamy et al. 1987) and the
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‘Stardust’ returned samples of comet Wild 2 (Zolensky et al., 2006) showed the presence of a mixture of
silicates and organic refractory in cometary dust. Thus, our model calculations represent the more realistic
type of grains which may be considered as a mixture of silicates and carbonaceous materials.
Conclusion
1. The observed polarization data fits well for BCCA aggregates with am=0.111µm (x=1.439) for comet
Bradfield at the same wavelength λ=0.485 µm.
2. The best fit refractive indices coming out from the present analyses are n=1.905 and k=0.069 for
N=128 at the wavelength λ=0.485 µm for comet Bradfield and n=1.755 and k=0.097 for comet
NEAT (Paul et al. 2010). These values resemble the presence of a mixture of silicates and organic
refractory in cometary dust of Bradfield.
3. The observed polarization difference in comets Bradfield and NEAT may be due to the change in
compositions of the dust grains.
4. The particular comparable in size to the wavelength of incident light give better fit to the observed
polarization data.
References
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SUPRAMOLECULAR CHEMISTRY AND ITS APPLICATION
Suman Adhikari*, Arijit Das** & Basu Maan Daas***
*, **, *** Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, Govt. Degree College, Dharmanagar, Tripura,
India
Corresponding author: Suman Adhikari
Abstract
Supramolecular chemistry refers to the study of supramolecular assemblies. Traditional chemistry generally
focuses on the covalent bonding but supramolecular chemistry monitored by weak interactions of
noncovalent bonds; exist extensively in numerous vital biological processes. The origin of supramolecular
chemistry was from the living biological systems to some extent. This critical review highlights recent
advances in supramolecular chemistry and its application.
Key words: Supramolecular chemistry, noncovalent bonds, host, guest, recognition, complexation.
*******
Introduction
Supramolecular Chemistry is one of the most popular and rapid growing areas of chemistry which emphases
going "beyond" molecular chemistry or “Chemistry of molecular assemblies and of the intermolecular
bond”. It is the study of systems which contain more than one molecular assembly, and it aims to understand
the structure, function, and properties of these assemblies. Supramolecular chemistry studies the phenomena
such as molecular self-assembly, protein folding, molecular recognition, host-guest chemistry,
mechanically-interlocked molecular architectures, and dynamic covalent chemistry. It is highly
interdisciplinary in nature and attracts not just chemists but biologists, environmental scientists, physicists,
biochemists, theoreticians, crystallographers. In 1987 the supramolecular Chemistry came of age when
Donald J. Cram, Jean-Marie Lehn, and Charles J. Pedersen were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for
Chemistry in recognition of their work on "host-guest" assemblies. The study of supramolecular Chemistry
covers a set of phenomena that are monitored by specific noncovalent interactions between molecules
like ion-dipole, dipole-dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding, metal coordination, hydrophobic forces, van
der Waals forces, pi-pi interactions and electrostatic effects. These phenomena are crucial in biological
systems, such as enzyme action, molecular transport, genetic information and processing, protein assembly,
etc. Biological systems are often the inspiration for supramolecular research.
Supramolecular Chemistry gives idea how molecules interact with each other. Among these interactions,
‘molecular recognition’ is the way that molecules can recognize each other.
Design Principle of Supramolecular Host
Generally a ‘host’ molecule binds a ‘guest’ molecule to produce ‘Host-Guest’ complex or supramolecule.
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Noncovalent interaction plays most crucial rule in the binding processes. Generally the host is a large molecule or
aggregates possessing a sizeable central hole or cavity and also possessing convergent binding site. The guest may be
cation or anion or molecules like hormones, pheromone or neurotransmitter and possesses divergent binding site. In
order to bind a host molecule must have binding positions to interact with the guest molecule. The binding sites must
be spaced out on the host in such a way to make it possible for the host to interact with guest molecule. There are two
major classes of host, cyclic and acyclic. Host-guest interaction occur through binding sites (Figure 1). Selective
and efficient recognition depends on cooperative contribution from both host and guest molecules and also
careful consideration of the target molecule.
Figure 1. Design Principle. Here. R= Reporter group: fluorogenic, Chromogenic or Redox active, B=
Binding site, S= Spacer- separates binding site and reporter group, G= Guest molecule.
In recent times synthetic receptors of specific structural properties are being used as sensors. Sensor must be
selective for a particular guest and not only report the presence of guest molecules, but also allow
determining its concentration. Some molecular binding can induce signal output, such as light emission.
Recently fluorometric technique, is widely used as it is more sensitive and very useful in the field of
supramolecular chemistry
Supramolecular chemistry in Nature
Nature exhibits rich and versatile examples of supramolecular chemistry. Origins of supramolecular
chemistry come from the chemistry found in living biological system. The concept of recognition to form
supramolecule is an integral part in both living and nonliving system. Nature has evolved an enormous
amount of highly selective, specific and cooperative chemistry that enables living system to maintain them
in the environment to feed, respire, reproduce and respond to external stimuli. Here some examples, which
play crucial role in living system, are briefly discussed.
Several key nucleoside binding proteins use both hydrogen bonding and π - π stacking forces to provide
strong and selective complexation. For example, ribonuclease T 1 binds guanine via two hydrogen bonds
between the peptide backbone and O (6) and NH (1) groups of guanine. The stacking interaction between a
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tyrosine residue (Tyr-45) and purine plane also enhance the binding. An ‘induced fit recognition’ is further
exemplified here from the fact that Tyr-45 swings from an ‘unbound’ conformation into a stacking position
on guanine binding. In the double helical structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the vertical base-base
interaction through hydrogen bonding is a stabilizing force of the double helix. The noncovalent interactions
that exist between the individual subunits in haemoglobin, controls both structure and function.
Valinomycine is a naturally occurring macrocyclic antibiotic, first isolated in 1955. It can selectively
transports K+ and H+ ion across mitochondrial membranes in the presence of Na+ ion. It has a cyclic
structure consisting of three identical repeated fragments of four amino acids each containing Dhydroxyisovaleric acid, D-valine, L-lactic acid and L-valine (Figure 2). Valinomycine is selective for K+
ion. It complexes K+ ion by the electronegative oxygen atoms of the antibiotic ester groups and once it is
encapsulated within the macrocycle it can be efficiently transported through the hydrophobic membrane.
The conformation adopted by Valinomycin on K+ complexation is stabilized by six –NCO…HN- hydrogen
bonds around the periphery of the macrocycle.
Me
O
MeMe
H
N
D O
Me
Me
O
DO
LO
Me
H
N
Me
LO
3
Figure 2. Valinomycin.
Application
1.
In transport process
Ion recognition, extraction and transport through membrane plays vital role in many biological processes.
Large quantities of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium ions, in particular, are all critical to life. The
design and synthesis of host molecules that can bind selectively guest molecules have made a range of
compounds that may become carrier receptors. If the molecules are membrane soluble, they induce the
selective transport of substrate through permeable membrane. Suitably modified receptors act as carriers for
the selective transport of various types of ions and neutral guest molecules through artificial or biological
membranes. Natural acyclic and macrocyclic ligands such as valinomycin, nonactin etc.are found to act as
selective ion carriers (ionophores). Another classical example is Haemoglobin, playing important roles in
uptake and transport of oxygen, are the iron complex supermolecules of porphyrin ring.
2.
In Medicines
Supramolecular chemistry can help to understand better how to make effective drugs. Supramolecules drug are
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formed by two or more molecules through noncovalent bonds. Binding of small molecules to complex
proteins that are complementary in shape and charge to the biomolecular target with which they interact and
therefore will bind to it, forms the basis of modern drug design. Drug molecules are specifically designed to
recognize only those particular enzymes or receptors involved in the disease process and as such drugs must
be highly discriminating at the molecular level so that the disease can be controlled without side effects.
Supramolecular chemistry methods create nanoparticles that significantly enhanced antitumor activity with
decreased toxicity in breast and ovarian cancer. The area of drug delivery has also made critical advances as
a result of supramolecular chemistry providing encapsulation and targeted release mechanisms.
Thus the artificial recognition of important biomolecules (peptides, nucleotides, drugs etc) may lead to the
development of new pharmaceutical strategies, drug delivery systems or chemical sensor design. Such
studies are directed at the recognition of the ground state structures of the target substrates. For instance,
Parkinson’s disease is caused by a lack of the transmitter dopamine in the brain. A common approach
involves the administration of dihydroxy phenylalanine (DOPA), a common biosynthetic precursor of
dopamine. DOPA can cross the blood brain barrier while dopamine cannot. Another treatment for
Parkinson’s disease in some cases is the administration of biopterine, which is one of the co-factors in the
biosynthesis of dopamine. Supramolecular drugs playing crucial roles in many medicinal such as antitumor,
anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimalarial, antibacterial, antifungal, antivirus, antiepileptic, cardiovascular
agents and magnetic resonance imaging agents etc.
3.
In Supramolecular catalysis
The beginnings of supramolecular chemistry may be traced back to Fisher’s lock and key model of
enzymatic catalysis. Enzyme catalysis shows the preferential complexation and stabilization of the transition
states over the corresponding starting materials and products. Binding occurs by three dimensional contacts
between enzyme and substrate by intermolecular interaction. Enzyme catalysts can accelerate the rate of a
chemical reaction up to 1020 times than the rate of the uncatalyzed reaction in water. The development of
small synthetic receptors which bind transition states or which lower the activation energy of a reaction by
introducing alternative pathways has been considerably more difficult. The success of this approach depends
on the precise positioning of binding groups in a receptor to bind more strongly the transition state than the
substrate and is expected to increase the rate of reaction. Supramolecular chemistry has therefore been to
utilize these supramolecular interactions for the development of highly efficient catalysts for organic
transformations.
4.
In Nanotechnology and molecular devices
Supramolecular chemistry will be the main tool used in the development of nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology and molecular devices are expected to play a major role in many future technologies. The
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fascinating benefits of supramolecular chemistry are the construction of defined nanostructures from small,
preferably synthetically easily accessible molecules. The main unifying theme is the control of matter on a
scale smaller than 1 micrometer, normally approximately 1 to 100 nanometers, as well as the fabrication of
devices of this size. The development of ultra-small molecular devices is predicted to enhance our standard
of living. Molecular devices are functional materials that are structurally precise down to the molecular level
that are constructed using the concepts of supramolecular chemistry. Molecular electronic devices,
molecular photonic devices, molecular computer, molecular machines are the examples of molecular devices.
Examples of nanotechnology in modern use are the manufacture of polymers based on molecular structure,
and the design of computer chip layouts based on surface science. Technology based on devices with
nanomaterial properties is predicted to revolutionize our lives in the near future.
Conclusion
Modern research is inspired by the prospect that supramolecular chemistry could lead to new technologies.
Supramolecular chemistry is still a new field, developing quickly due to contributions from a variety of
related fields. At the end of this century, Supramolecular Chemistry appears as a revolutionary way of
dealing with chemical compounds and concepts, exploiting the properties beyond the frontiers of the
isolated molecules. Supramolecular Chemistry has already discovered the great possibilities for the design of
intelligent molecules and devices. Molecular electronics and photonics are being expected as the next
generation of advanced machine. Recently the development of molecular devices capable of sensing, photo
switching, separation, motion and transport have become major focus of this field. Biotechnology and
nanotechnology are expected to lead to technological revolutions in near future that will dramatically affect
our lifestyles. Supramolecular chemistry is a necessary tool in these technologies.
Acknowledgements
We thank UGC NERO, Government of India for financial support. S.A expresses his gratitude and sincerest
thanks to Dr. Kumaresh Ghosh, University of Kalyani, India and Prof. Chang He Lee, Kangwon National
University, South Korea, for valuable guidance, helpful discussions and constant encouragement.
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THE
BOOK
FOR
ALL
AND
NONE
-
FRIEDRICH
NIETZSCHE’S
THUS
SPOKE
ZARATHRUSTRA
Zinia Mitra, Head of the Department of English, Nakshalbari College, Darjeeling , India.
Abstract
Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None (Also sprach Zarathustra: Ein Buch für Alle
und Keinen) attempts to do philosophy in fiction. Nietzsche traces the fault line of Western culture all the
way back to the Persian prophet Zarathustra who is known to be the first to depict the entire cosmos as a
conflict between good gods and evil gods, and the first to conceive of a judgment day at the end of the
worldly time when god shall reward all good with eternal life. Nietzsche brings Zarathustra out of the cave
to confront his gaffe and atone for them with his new teachings. Some of the important hypotheses of
Nietzsche are educed here.
*******
To be, or not to be? That is the question—
Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And, by opposing, end them?
( Hamlet Act III , Sc I )
Thus Spoke Zarathrustra is regarded as Nietszche’s philosophical masterpiece.
1
It emulates the tenor of
pre –Socratic philosophical works while it maps out the fault line of western culture way back to Zoroaster
or Zarathrustra, the Persian founder of Zoroastrianism who is known to be the first to portray the entire
cosmos as a conflict between good gods and evil gods and the first to conceive of a Judgment Day at the
end of the worldly time when all that is good shall be rewarded with eternal life. Nietzsche makes
Zarathrustra confront his old teachings that have had devastating consequence on mankind with his new
teachings that Nietszche devises for him. Here are Nietszche’s own words explaining why he chose
Zarathrustra:
“People have never asked me, as they should have done, what the name Zarathustra precisely means in my
mouth, in the mouth of the first Immoralist; for what distinguishes that philosopher from all others in the
past is the very fact that he was exactly the reverse of an immoralist. Zarathustra was the first to see in the
struggle between good and evil the essential wheel in the working of things.
The translation of morality into the metaphysical, as force, because, end in itself, was his work. But the very
question suggests its own answer. Zarathustra created the most portentous error, morality, consequently he
should also be the first to perceive that error, not only because he has had longer and greater experience of
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the subject than any other thinker—all history is the experimental refutation of the theory of the so-called
moral order of things:—the more important point is that Zarathustra was more truthful than any other
thinker. In his teaching alone do we meet with truthfulness upheld as the highest virtue—i.e.: the reverse of
the cowardice of the ‘idealist’ who flees from reality. Zarathustra had more courage in his body than any
other thinker before or after him. To tell the truth and to aim straight: that is the first Persian virtue.” 2
Thus Spoke Zarathrustra chronicles fictional travels and realizations of Zarathustra. It is in four parts. The
first three parts were published separately and then together as a single volume in 1887. It was later
reprinted in 1892 when a fourth part added to it.The original text includes word plays like über meaning
‘over’ and also ‘above’ and unter meaning ‘down’ and also ‘below’. Nietszche pairs these together to
emphasize contrast. Another such example is Untergang, literally meaning ‘down-going’ but in German
meaning ‘setting, like the sun does’. Nietzsche pairs it with its opposite Übergang meaning ‘going over or
across’. Übermensch has been translated by Common and R. J. Hollingdale as ‘superman’
Kaufmann
4
uses ‘overman’, and Graham Parkes uses ‘overhuman’.
3
while Walter
5
Thus Spoke Zarathrustra contains Nietszche’s famous dictum that God is dead that appears earlier in his The
Gay Science. In the fourth part of the book Pope admits that he already knows about it.
The key premise of the text, as is evident in Zarathustra’s first address to the people after he comes down
from his mountain cave, is transformation and further evolution of humankind. The Platonic Cave image is
inverted here as a clove of wisdom rather than that of ignorance. 6
The sun is another important image in
the text as dispeller of ignorance as in the Vedas.
As a tightrope walker begins his performamce in the town Zarathustra begins preaching his concept of
Übermensch to the townsfolk and we are made to realize that tightrope walking is symbolic of man’s
crossing over to the desired state that Nietszche calls superman.
Man is a rope fastened between animal and superhuman-a rope over an abyss. (43)
But people fail to grasp the concept. A jester sneaks up and makes the tightrope walker fall . As the
tightrope walker lies dying at Zarathustra’s feet he fears that the devil may drag him to hell, Zarathustra
reassures him that there is no Devil and nothing called Hell : “Your soul will be dead even before your body
: therefore fear nothing any more.” (48)
As a critique of the afterworld Zarathustra contends that the longing for such an afterworld originates with
a weariness with life:
It was the sick and dying who despised the body and the earth and invented the things of heaven and
the redeeming drops of blood: but even these sweet and dismal poisons they took from the body and
the earth .” (60)
Your little intelligence, my brother, which you call ‘spirit’ is also an instrument of your body, a little
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instrument and toy of your great intelligence. (62)
Behind your thought and feelings, my brother, stands a mighty commander, an unknown sage –he is
called Self. He lives in your body. He is your body.(62)
Zarathustra preaches that God is a conjecture. It is unnecessary to emphasize that God does not exist. The
concept of god, whether god exists or not, can barely be a hypothesis, for human beings can know things
only from the human perspective. Whatever inference we draw that too can be from human perspective
alone.
Once blasphemy against God was the greatest blasphemy, but God died, and thereupon these
blasphemers died too. (42)
“God is a supposition : but who could imbibe all the anguish of this supposition without dying? …
God is a thought that makes all that is straight crooked and all that stands giddy. What ? Would time
be gone and all that is transitory only a lie? (110)
Ah brothers this god which I created was human work and human madness ,like all gods! (59)
Zarathustra crosses over a bridge to find man in ruins. Humanity is in ruins today because the spirit of
revenge has been the driving force behind the values of the past. Zarathustra identifies priests as his evil
enemies: “And they did not know how to love their god except by crucifying man.” (p115) The worst
monsters of mortal men are false values and false scriptures.
In the fourth part the search for higher man continues. Zarathrustra meets superior human beings but these
superior beings are not the overhuman or superman. Zarathrustra advises these superior humans that they
must laugh. Mankind has to become responsible for their actions to become overman or superman. They
need to brush aside the fear of being under strict vigilance of a god who will punish them in the end.
The ending of Thus Spoke Zarathrustra is rather focused on Zarathrustra’s awareness that his bequest is
beginning to bring about the change he desired.
Thus Spoke Zarathustra unfolds three important Nietzschean concepts.
The first is that of the overman or superman (übermensch). Nietzsche sees humanity as facing a crisis.
Human beings require further evolving. The evolution Nietzsche speaks of is philosophical rather than
physical. It involves a questioning of the entire Western philosophical tradition, the concepts of God,
Heaven and Hell and evolve out of it with a completely different approach toward life. If there is no god to
vigil and punish us for our actions we grow more accountable for what we do.
“ Sleeping is no mean art : you need to stay awake all day to do it.” (56)
The second Nietzschean idea presented in the text is the will to power. Nietszche was much influenced by
Schopenhauer, especially by his
The World as Will and Representation (1818). Nietzsche must have
understood and expressed it as a major driving force in humans, something that makes human beings work
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and achieve rather than a mere desire for power. Schopenhauer had put the central emphasis on will and in
particular on the will to live. For Schopenhauer, under the conscious intellect of beings lay a Will which
may either be conscious or unconscious but it is a striving and persistent vital force.
“…a sacred Yes is needed my brothers ,for the sport of creation : the spirit now wills its own will, the spirit
sundered from the world now wins its own world.” (55)
“ Willing liberates : that is the true doctrine of will and freedom—thus Zarathrustra teaches you . ” (111)
The third concept is that of eternal recurrence.
Though it is supposed that Nietzsche had encountered the idea in his reading and had not originally
conceived of the idea himself, it held a great significance for him. Walter Kaufmann asserts that Nietzsche
had read a book by Henrich Heine which he had in his library and was indebted to him for the concept. 7
Henrich Heine’s passage contains the concept in a very concise and lucid manner than is expressed in
Nietzsche’s The Gay Science or in Thus Spoke Zarathrustra. In Beyond Good and Evil , in On the
Geneology of Morals , and in The Case of Wagner the concept is never mentioned but Twilight of the Idols
and Ecce Homo tells us what immense weight Nietzsche attaches to the doctrine.
Heine’ s passage reads :
And she answered with a tender voice : “Let us be good friends.”_----But what I have told you hee dear
reader, that is not an event of yesterday or the day before….For time is infinite but the things in time ,the
concrete bodies are finite. They may indeed disperse into the smallest particles ;but these particles the
atoms, have their determinate number, and the number of configurations that ,all of themselves, are formed
out of them is also determinate. Now, however long a time may pass ,according to the eternal laws
governing the combinations of eternal play of repetition, all configuration that have previously existed on
earth must yet meet, attract ,repulse ,kiss, and corrupt each other again…And thus it will happen one day
that a man will be born again ,just like me, and a woman will be born, just like Mary—only that it is to be
hoped that the head of this man may contain a little less foolishness-and in a better land they will meet and
contemplate each other for a long time; and finally the woman will give her hand to the man and say with a
tender voice : “ Let us be good friends”. 8
The concept that Universe has been recurring and will do so ad infinitum is a concept we are familiar with as
Indians. The concept was also prevalent in ancient Egypt. In Buddhism the wheel of life represents an
endless cycle of birth, life, and death from which one ought to seek release. In Tantric Buddhism, the wheel
of time, known as the Kalachakra , represents the idea of an endless cycle of existence. Indian and Buddhist
philosophy sees this recurrence as a form of punishment rather than that of enjoyment. We are doomed to
repeat the pangs of birth and death if we do not liberate ourselves from this vicious cycle.
Thus Spoke Zarathrustra became a gospel for Nietzsche. His later books are attempts to explain himself
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further. If Europe could not appreciate and understand his poetry he must address them in prose. For
Zarathrustra seemed quite perplexing even to Nietzsche ’s scholar friends like Overbeck and Burckhurt
who had been his colleagues in Basle and had much appreciated his The Birth of Tragedy (1872 revised
1886). They mourned the death of a philologist if not that of god. In Beyond Good and Evil (1886) and The
Genealogy of Morals (1887) Nietzsche hoped to demolish standard old morality and prepare the human for
the superhuman. He turned to philology again to persuade his new morals.
Nietzsche points at two contradictory estimation of individual behavior :
Herren Moral and Herden
Moral— one was morality of the masters and the other a morality of the flock. The former was the
established standard in classical antiquity especially amongst the Romans to whom virtue meant courage,
manhood and bravery, but in Asia, especially in the days of Jewish political subjugation there was the other
standard of virtue that esteemed humility and vulnerability that finally bred altruism.
The Old man whom Nietzsche meets in the forest represents an age in which men believed in god and
celebrated his presence by laughing and singing .The old man had not even heard that god was dead. But
what is interesting here is that he has chosen forest for he was disappointed with man. Zarathustra realizes
that he could only take from the old man and give him nothing. The madman of The Gay Science had
lamented that God's death deprived us of our center of gravity, that it has become dark, so dark that lanterns
have to be lit even in the morning and yet their light could not penetrate the darkness. Zarathrustra speaks of
a new light, a natural light like that of the sun that would bring in a new enlightenment.
Notes and References
Although Harold Bloom begs to differ, calling it “unreadable” and a “ gorgeous disaster” in his book The
Western Canon. See Bloom, Harold The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. New York:
Riverhead Books, 1994. pp. 196, 422.
“Introduction ” by Mrs.Forster –Nietzsche in Thus Spake Zarathustra (a Book for All and None) By
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche translated by Thomas Common Indo –European publishing,UK, 2009.
Thus spoke Zarathustra : a book for everyone and no one, Nietzsche ; translated with an introduction by R.J.
Hollingdale, Cambridge University Press,UK, 2006.
Thus Spoke Zarathrustra. trans Walter Kaufman in Kaufman ed. The Portable Nietzsche , Viking, New
York ,1954.
Thus Spoke Zarathrustra. trans. Graham Parkes, Oxford World Classics, U.K. 2005.
The Allegory of the Cave was presented by Plato in The Republic ( 514 -520) Plato describes a group of
people who have lived facing a blank wall chained to the wall of a cave all their lives . If
shadows are
projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire that burns behind them they will take the shadows
to be real. The shadows are the closest possible perception of reality the prisoners can have.
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Litzte Getichte Und Gadenken von H Heine ,ed Adolf Strodtmann Hamburg 1869. In 1869 H Lichtenberger
cited this passage but said expressly that Nietzsche did not know it. In 1908 ,C.A. Bernoulli pointed out that
it was to be found in Strodmann’s book and that Nietzsche therefore could have read it. In 1950 I added
“that Nietzsche actually possessed the book.” As quoted in Walter Kaufmann. The Gay Science: With a
Prelude in Rhymes and an Appendix of Songs.Trans with commentary by Walter Kaufmann Vintage Books,
edition, New York,1974.
The Gay Science: With a Prelude in Rhymes and an Appendix of Songs
Trans. with commentary by Walter Kaufmann. Vintage Books Edition, New York, 1974, p 16-17.
* For all citations from the text I have used Friedrich Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathrustra, Penguin
Classics, England, 1961.
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THEME OF DISPLACEMENT AND LONELINESS - A STUDY OF JHUMPA LAHIRI’S INTERPRETER
OF MALADIES
Mun Mun Das Biswas, Faculty member, Faculty of Education, ICFAI University Tripura, India.
Abstract
Diaspora is a word which is derived from Greek which means ‘to disperse’. In cultural theory, the term is used to
cover a range of territorial displacements, either forced, such as indenture and slavery or voluntary emigration.
Diasporas thus live in one country as community but look across time and space to another. Undeniable is the fact
that living in between condition is very painful and marginalizing for the diasporas. Rootless and displaced, they
nostalgically yearn for “home”, go back to the “lost origin” and “imaginary homelands.” They also face cultural
dilemma when their cultural practices are mocked at and there is a threat to their cultural identity. Diasporas usually
face two pull – one towards the native culture and the second towards the host culture.
Diasporic writing has flourished a lot in the writings of luminaries like Salman Rushdie, Bharati Mukherjee, Anita
Desai, Kiran Desai and of course Jhumpa Lahiri. Jhumpa Lahiri’s Interpreter of Maladies has been selected by the
researcher for critical study. The paper attempts to focus on the theme of displacement, loneliness and alienation
intricately dealt in the collection of short stories which has made a mark in the contemporary Indo-Anglian writing for
its exploration of the Indian diasporic life in America
Key words: Diaspora
*******
Diaspora is a word which is derived from Greek which means ‘to disperse’. In cultural theory, the term is used to
cover a range of territorial displacements, either forced, such as indenture and slavery or voluntary emigration.
Diasporas thus live in one country as community but look across time and space to another. Undeniable is the fact that
living in between condition is very painful and marginalizing for the diasporas. Rootless and displaced, they
nostalgically yearn for “home”, go back to the “lost origin” and “imaginary homelands.” They also face cultural
dilemma when their cultural practices are mocked at and there is a threat to their cultural identity. Diasporas usually
face two pull – one towards the native culture and the second towards the host culture.
Diasporic writing has flourished a lot in the writings of luminaries like Salman Rushdie, Bharati Mukherjee, Anita
Desai, Kiran Desai and of course Jhumpa Lahiri.Jhumpa Lahiri’s Interpreter of Maladies has been selected by the
researcher for critical study. With its characters poised between the old world of India and the unnerving newness of
America, Jhumpa Lahiri’s prize winning collection of short stories, The Interpreter of Maladies reveals her
commendable grasp of biculturism and authoritative grace. Having won critical acclaim for “its grace, acuity and
compassion in detailing lives, transported from India to America,” the book remains a subtle evocation of the warm
and complex portrayal of family life and Indian immigrants trying to saddle two cultures- their Indian heritage and the
American dream. Lahiri’s subject is the loneliness of dislocation, cultural displacement, sense of identity and
belonging with one foot in two worlds. Imbued with the fine details of both Indian and American cultures, Lahiri’s
stories describe with universal compassion, the fragmentation of identities, the alienation and sense of loneliness
experienced by all immigrants, giving voice to their anguish and probing into their complex psychoses. The Interpreter
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of Maladies is a collection of nine stories, depicting the trauma and angst of the first generation and second generation
Indian migrants to the United States
The very first story “A Temporary Matter” is about a young couple – Shoba and Shukumar – who don’t know how to
cope with the pain bequeathed after the birth of a stillborn child. Till this point the wife’s grudge has been against the
husband who, she feels, does not share her pain of losing the baby and also is indifferent. The grudge she has nursed
over the years is quite evident from the expression that “he wasn’t even there” only to discover in the course of the
black-outs that he had arrived in time and even held his dead son. Their tension is many but the dark nights give them
a vent to confess their secrets, and on the last night she tells him about her plan to move out, as the isolation and
loneliness engulfing her are becoming unbearable. Memories of India also play a vital role in their interludes of
intimacy.
“I remember during power failures at my grandmother’s house, we all had to say something,” Shoba continued
“……..Shukumar hadn’t spent as much time in India as Shoba had………He wished now that his own childhood story
of India. Thus, the very first story is a story of utter loneliness of a woman who wanted to make her life complete by
becoming a mother but the birth of a still born child shook the roots of her marital life.
“When Mr. Pirzada Came to Dine” explores the isolation and loneliness of the single man who leaves home and
family to earn a living abroad, and the anxiety he undergoes when the clouds of war start looming over East Pakistan.
Jhumpa Lahiri, in an interview with Elizabeth Fransworth of Pulitzer Fiction Jhumpa Lahiri says, “This story is based
on a gentleman from Bangladesh who used to come to my parents’ house in 1971…...I heard from my parents what his
predicament was. And when I learned about his situation, which was that he was in the United States during the
Pakistani civil war and his family was back in Dacca…. I was so overwhelmed by this information that I wrote this
story.” The 10yr old Lilia, the first person narrator, is excellent in “American history but ignorant and curious about
the division of Bengal between Hindus and Muslims. Her Calcutta immigrant parents are usually anxious to hobnob
with their compatriots. Mr. Pirzada is sought out by them through the university directory, even though he, speaking
the same language, is technically not an “Indian” for he comes from East Pakistan. Lilia and Mr. Pirzada become fast
friends. Mr. Pirzada is a botanist visiting New England for his research, whose stay coincides with the Bangladeshi
war of independence in 1971. He worries about his wife and seven daughters in Dacca. Lilia prays secretively for the
safety of her friend’s family in the newly developed war situation in South Asia. As suddenly as he comes, Mr.
Pirzada disappears from Lily’s life to find out the fate of his family. However, from her friendship with him, 10yr old
learns a little about human relationships and an idea of what it means for Mr. Pirzada to have been away from his
family.
“Interpreter of Maladies” gives us the image of American-born Indian family on vacation in India, strangers to their
own culture and heritage. Mr. Das, the husband of the protagonist, a man occupied with himself. Mrs. Das, a lady in
control but with a dark secret hidden with her. This family of five comes to Orissa from America. They engage Mr.
Kapasi as their guide, a well-learned man, who due to some bad fortune ends up taking the profession as an
interpreter. Mr.kapasi is impressed by the lady and takes keen interest in her and strangely Mrs. Das too takes keen
interest in him too, but for totally different reasons. She is intrigued by his profession as an interpreter of Gujarati
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patients who can’t speak the local language. The focus in this story is on the marital relationships. Mrs. Das tells
Mr.kapasi her darkest of secrets that one her sons is not conceived by her husband. She tells him that she has been
struggling with this secret for the past eight years and has confided to none. She wants to unburden this eight year
torture to someone sympathetic. But Mr. Kapasi, the interpreter of people’s maladies fails to offer any remedy to Mrs.
Das’s malady which she had vainly hoped, he would offer: All he can utter is “ Is it really pain you feel Mrs. Das is it
guilt?” Through this story the author finally expresses the dilemma, the difficulty and often the impossibility of
communicating emotional pain and affection to other, as well as expressing it to ourselves.
Story” A Real Durwan” is set in India, but feature exclusively Indian characters. This story centres around a woman
living on the fringes of the society and are exploited by their own people. “Real Durwan” tells the story of a 64-year
old woman named Boori Ma, who had been deported to Calcutta as a result of the Partition. She is a self-appointed
door keeper and stair sweeper of a flat-building, whose residents allow her to sleep on the floor under the letter boxes
by the main entrance. She has been looked after by the inhabitants of the building; however when a theft occurs she is
wrongly accused and subsequently turned out of the building. Boori Ma forever rambling about her past life of dreamlike comfort and luxury with her retinue of servants is obviously suffering from a disturbed mind.
“Sexy” is another story about a woman’s displacement and loneliness and also features a child character whose
innocent words help the protagonist make sense of her relationship with a married man. Miranda, a twenty two year
old woman from Michigan, has come to Boston to work and live alone. She is having an affair with a married Indian
American Banker named Dev who picked her up by the cosmetics counter in a department store. The relationship
between the English girl Miranda and the Indian Dev dies a quiet death for more than one reason. It happens not only
because Miranda realizes that she cannot expect more than physical fulfillment from Dev but also because of the
definition that Rohin, an Indian friend’s cousin’s child gives to the term ‘sexy’ and explains it to mean “ loving
someone you don’t know”. The child, himself a victim of an unfaithful father, elaborates: “That’s what my father did.
He sat next to someone he doesn’t know, someone sexy, and now he loves her instead of my mother. She also perceives
the parallel between her desperate situation and the pathetic condition of a deserted wife. Both long for impossible
relationship based on love. In this story the writer tries to focus the typical feminine mentality of expecting something
big from a relationship which is solely dependent on sexual satisfaction rather than any emotional attachment and
finally it brings utter desolation, exile and pain to the female protagonist.
The coping problems of the first generation Indian immigrants are the subject of “Mrs. Sen”. The emotional exile and
loneliness of the woman is beautifully underlined as Lahiri shows us her attempts at adjustment in the new
environment.Mrs.Sen has reluctantly accompanied her Professor husband who has come to teach mathematics at an
American University shares her isolation with young Eliot- Mrs. Sen the baby sitter is seen through the eyes of Eliot,
an 11 year old left in her charge. Back home in Calcutta, people think that she lives like a queen in a palace. Her
refusal to learn driving which she needs to learn if she is to keep her job is a gesture of resistance she offers to a new
life. Her loneliness is conveyed through the manner in which she waits for the letters and listens to cassettes of
Bengali speaking of people and narrates accounts of Calcutta life to Eliot.
“This Blessed House” is a delightful story, which puts across the point that it is not religious identity that satisfies
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man but the sense of affinity and involuntary affection that exist between people, even among strangers. The previous
tenants left a treasure trough behind apparently wishing the best for their successors. Each finding of the treasure that
she stumbles upon fills Sanjeev’s wife Twinkle, with great joy and excitement. It started with an effigy of Christ and
continued with a wooden cross with a key chain, a painting of the three wise men, a 3-D post card of St. Francis, a tile
trivet of sermon-delivering Jesus, a miniature Nativity scene and a number of others. She is hardly affected by the fact
that all of them are Christian symbols and is happy enough to arrange them on the mantelshelf. Sanjeev on the other
hand, is full of antipathy for these Christian symbols. His mind is bogged down by inhibition and injured self-sense.
Once again Lahiri touches a chord in all thinking human beings that religion doesn’t have to interfere with day-to-day
life of people going about their business. But then the bone of contention is not about the religious divide but it is the
finer feelings that make up human relationships. So to his surprise Sanjeev realizes that despite the dignity, solemnity
and beauty of the silver bust of Christ, he hated it all the more because Twinkle loved it. After he discovered his
malady of possessive love Sanjeev pressed the massive silver face to his ribs, careful not to let the feather hat slip, and
followed her. The very concept of alienation and displacement is quite apparent from the Christian paraphernalia and
it further indicates that the living between cultures lends an extra layer of complexity to situations and relationships.
“The Treatment of Bibi Haldar” is another story which is set in India and in this story Lahiri recounts the life
experience of a young woman, Bibi Haldar, who suffers from an epileptic disease. She has come to live under her
uncle and aunt’s supervision after her father died. Her uncle and aunt take her in because the family relationship, not
compassion, obliges them. Hence, she is much neglected in many ways. Bibi believes that marriage can cure her. Yet
it is precisely because of her ailment that she obtains no marriage proposal. During a fit, she becomes pregnant. Bibi
does not remember how it happens, but she is cured from the disease. Her relatives disappear on her after the disgrace.
With the help of the neighborhood women Bibi starts a pharmacy business with her uncle’s remaindered stock and
brings up her child. This story depicts that the loneliness and isolation is not merely physical and circumstantial but
also an isolation born in the mind of Bibi Haldar. This story depicts universal alienation – eternal disparity and subtle,
unspoken conflict or resentment between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots’.
“The Third and Final Continent”, presents alienation and a gradual initiation of a Bengali gentleman. The
protagonist is sailed to London from Calcutta by an Italian Congo Vessel, SS Roma for higher study. He struggles
hard for his study and for a job and finally joins in Dewey library of MIT, Boston. The Indian has crossed the seas
alone to make his fortune in Europe and America. He speaks Bengali with his wife when she arrives there in the same
manner he speaks English with Mrs. Croft, his onetime landlady in America who always liked to listen from
him“Splendid” success of the American that “there is an American Flag on the Moon!” His searching for maladies in
America with Mrs. Croft, his wife and son are many but he fears that his son will no longer speak Bengali after he and
his wife die and it will be a “linguistic loss.” Yet he encourages his son “ if I can survive on three continents, then
there is no obstacle he cannot conquer” and “ while the astronauts, heroes forever, spent mere hours on the moon, I
have remained in this new world for nearly thirty years”. He says “still there are times I am bewildered by each mile I
have travelled, each meal I have eaten, each person I have known, each room in which I have slept. As ordinary as it
all appears, there are times when it is beyond my imagination”. These lines express a universal experience – the
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experience of all immigrants who yearn for a home, who yearn to belong and who yearn to be rooted.
Adapting to the ways of three continents, the man and his wife succeed in retaining his original cultural identity. Even
in America “the smell of steamed rice marks a home as different from an apartment.” A dish of chicken made with
fresh garlic on the stove “makes a sumptuous meal. Not only food but the eating habits also become dear as it induces
a sense of belonging. Eating with hands gives pleasure as no spoon or fork does. Their son who attends Harvard
University will also inherit this habit of eating steamed rice with his hands. This habit is a great favor with Indians
settled abroad. “In India most of the characters may speak English, but no English food is an intrinsic part of Indian
cuisine or diasporic identity.” These are “lives in exile”, as Lahiri herself observes, and these are “defining and
redefining the Indian-American diaspora” in particular and immigrant patches to this promise land in general. Love,
tradition and identity issues are always at the heart of the story and of the characters.
Jhumpa Lahiri like a miniaturist very intricately blended the two worlds i.e. the native and the host culture in almost
all the short stories of the fiction ‘The Interpreter of Maladies’. Lahiri’s success lies in the fact that she has
outrageously emerged as an interpreter of exile in its various nuances and manifestation. The themes range from
emotional struggle of love to immigrants battling new worlds. The characters in her stories always swayed in the
world of betweeness. Her stories are marked by a sense of alienation, longing, loss and hope which so often mark the
immigrant experience and which incredibly form a part of what she, her parents and friends too experienced as fellow
immigrants.
References
Balachandran, K. (2008) Critical Essays on Diasporic Writings, Arise Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi p. 168175
Naikar, Basavaraj (2002) Indian English Literature Vol 2, Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi p.203-212
Sinha, Sunita (2008) Post-colonial Women Writers: new perspectives, Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi p. 184 – 189
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