EUROPE: AGES OF REVOLUTIONS 1750 - 1914

EUROPE:
AGES OF REVOLUTIONS
1750 - 1914
COMMERCIAL IDEOLOGIES IN 1750
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Industry and Commerce dominate the thinking of this age
Mercantilism
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Limited amount of wealth in the world
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Governments pass legislation to support domestic commerce
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Colonization: find homes for excess population
Imperialism provides markets, resources for domestic industry
Foreign possessions bring glory, wealth to the nation
Almost every nation in the world subscribes to this theory
French, Colbert were major proponents of theory
Free Trade
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Trade incentives for local producers
Establish economic, legal barriers to outside trade
Governments support colonization, imperialism
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If one nation benefited, another suffered
Goal is to maximize nation’s portion of trade
Goal is to exclude competition from markets and monopolize wealth
Wealth is not finite but can be created
To maximize wealth, allow people, industry to compete freely
Governments exist to protect competition, not guarantee success
UK, US (American colonies), Dutch are free traders
Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nation
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Intellectual father of capitalism, free trade
Ideas came to dominate US, Great Britain
By 1914
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UK was 1st in world, US was 3rd
English, American companies dominated world trade, finance, industry, capital
Even Germany, 2nd practiced the doctrine often
ECONOMIC EXCHANGES IN 1750
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Domestic Trade
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International Trade
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Most commerce is internal
Most markets sought autarky: self-sufficiency
Greatest amount of GDP would be internal
Workers, farmers do not generate for export
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Conditions of Trade
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Trade Markets
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Mercantilism predominates
International trade tends to be limited to cash crops, finished luxuries
Western Europe dominates most trade
Only Eastern Asia has the ability to rival, challenge Western Europe
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Western European exports and imports
– Exports: finished products, finished luxuries
– Imports: raw materials, minerals, primary crop luxuries
Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Northern Europe, SW Asia
– Imports: finished products, finished luxuries
– Exports: minerals, primary products, grains
Americas including Caribbean, South Asia
– Imports: finished products, finished luxuries
– Exports: minerals, primary products, cash crops
Eastern Asia
– Exports: finished products, finished luxuries, cloths, silks
– Imports: minerals (silver), luxuries, luxury food
– Note: most economies limit European influence, contacts
Africa
– Imports: finished products, finished luxuries, cash crops
– Exports: slaves, ivory, gold, cloves
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– Triangular Trade between Americas, Europe, Africa
TRADE IN 1750
ECONOMIC EXCHANGES IN 1914
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Saw the rise of international trade
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Terms of Trade
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Trade involved all types of products, goods for first time
Entire world involved: all continents, peoples effected
Some nations traded to exist: made their wealth off of trade
Very few nations produced finished goods for international market (core)
Most nations supplied world markets with raw materials (periphery)
Nations had begun to specialize in trade (we cannot produce everything)
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Most items traded were finished goods, industrial products
Wealthy nations tended to trade with each other
Western Colonies, Latin America, all of Asia except Japan
• Only accounted for a small part of trade
• Generally exported primary products, imported finished products
Nations began negotiating trade agreements
• The US and later UK came to favor open markets (markets open to all)
• Most favored nation status was goal: partners traded as equals
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Rise of international capital markets
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Rise of Multinational Corporations
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International Economic Exchanges
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Rise of international communism, socialism as reactions to international wealth
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Domestic profit needed to be invested, sometimes best opportunities abroad
Money invested abroad to reap benefits at home
Rise of international banks, investment opportunities
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Corporations had branches, outlets in other nations
Facilitated the transfer of technology, ideas, people between continents
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Linked the world better than most ideologies
Was an instrument of revolutionary change to traditional societies
Was a threat to traditional societies
TRADE IN 1914
2ND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
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In 1750 the world was largely subsistence agriculture
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Began in England but also occurred in Western Europe, US, Asia
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Enclosure Act
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Rhythms of regional agricultural societies based on seasons, surroundings
Small plots, rural villages, no export: exception were Russia, Baltic
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Outgrowth of Columbian Exchange
Outgrowth of the Scientific Revolution
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Larger landowners begin to enclose lands
• Began with enclosure of public lands
• Done legally to increase yields of large landowners
• Then took smaller farms, plots away from poor farmers
• Done with support of Parliament
Results
• Moved small, inefficient farms into better productivity
• Brought new lands under cultivation
• Freed labor for factories and swelled population in cities
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The Revolution
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Agricultural Revolution followed European imperialism
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New Foodstuffs planted; new styles of crop rotations
Selected breeds of cattle, dairy cattle, sheep
Technology, science applied to farming
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Europeans brought their crops, animals with them
Europeans began exploiting cash crops for commercial profit abroad
FROM PEASANTS TO FARMERS
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The process, while social, began with technology, science
– Agronomy and animal husbandry replaced herding
• Selective breeding, splicing, experimentation
• Crop varieties, fertilizers to enrich soil
– Farming machinery introduced
• Thrashers, reapers, seed drills, tractors
• Muscle , animal power replaced by machines
• Barbed wire was a revolution
– Transport, preservation made export possible
• Trains, ships with large holds
• Grain silos, refrigerator ships, canning, food processors
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Subsistence Agriculture becomes commercial farming
– Western Europe, US, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay
– Australia, New Zealand, parts of India, China, Japan
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On the other hand, in some countries
– Peasants went from masters of their own work
– To hands for someone else’s work, or someone else’s work hands
– Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, parts of Latin America, SE Asia
COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE
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Commercial agriculture was a revolution 1750 – 1914
– Cash crops: crops grown for profitable export
– Often luxuries or non-necessities with high profit margins
– Two bottlenecks (natural hindrance to profitable production)
• Many are labor intensive: solution – slavery, paid agricultural workers
• Many require extensive processing, preservation to be useful: solution – technology
– Commercial agriculture is heavily damaging to the environment, soil
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First arose during 16th century colonialism
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Expanded in 18th century
– Caribbean, Brazilian, SE Asian plantations
– Latin American haciendas, rancheros
– First export crops: sugar, hides, wool, spices
– British North American colonies
• Added tobacco, indigo, rice
• Naval stores (trees, pitch, tar)
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– Asia added tea, coffee, opium, cloves
– Americas added cocoa, coffee
Industrial Revolution made additional possible more
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Cotton (seeds); rubber, oil (synthesizing)
Beef, mutton, grains, dairy (long-term preservation, get to market on time)
The rest of world, especially Africa enormously effected
Many areas of world taken from feeding people to exporting for profit
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
• The first revolution in an era of change, revolution
• 1780s Breakthrough in productivity
– Mechanization of factory, labor
– Production of vast quantities of goods
– Decreasing costs of goods
• Preceded by other revolutions and changes in attitude
– Scientific, Commercial Enlightenment, Agricultural
– Change in mindset
• New Ideas
• Risk takers
– Massive markets for products
– Improved organizational skills
– Upsurge in technology
• Inventors apply science to life, work
• Many new inventions
– Capitalization and Finance
• Profits from trade, colonies
• Invested in Europe
– Institutional changes
• Limited government of a constitutional democracy
• Notion that government should be minimally involved in economy
FOUNDATIONS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
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Coal critical to the early industrialization of Britain
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Overseas colonies provided raw materials, capital
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Demand for cheap cotton spurred mechanization of cotton industry
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James Watt's steam engine, 1765
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Iron and steel also important industries, with continual refinement
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Transportation improved with steam engines and improved steel
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Shift from wood to coal in 18TH century; deforestation caused wood shortages
Abundant, accessible coal reserves in Britain
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Plantations in the Americas provided sugar and cotton
Colonies also became markets for British manufactured goods
Grain, timber, and beef shipped from United States to Britain after 1830
Profits from sugar funded banks, provided investment capital
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John Kay invented the flying shuttle, 1733
Samuel Crompton invented the spinning "mule," 1779
Edmund Cartwright invented a water-driven power loom, 1785
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Burned coal, which drove a piston, which turned a wheel
Widespread use by 1800 meant increased productivity, cheaper prices
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Coke (purified coal) replaced charcoal as principal fuel
Bessemer converter (1856) made cheaper, stronger steel
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George Stephenson invented the first steam-powered locomotive, 1815
Steamships began to replace sailing ships in the mid-nineteenth century
Railroads and steamships lowered transportation costs
Created dense transportation networks
IMAGES OF INVENTION
INDUSTRIAL CAUSE & EFFECT
SPINNING
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WEAVING
(EX: Spinning
Jenny)
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(EX: Flying
shuttle)
Machines become heavier, thus
Extra power is needed, thus
Watermills, steam engine invented, thus
Emergence of factory system, replacing
cottage industry;
Because production must be concentrated near
the power source, and machines become too
expensive to be owned by workers, thus
Profound social transformations, thus
Urban influx, crowding, unprecedented social
problems thus
Workers organize, government passes laws
and reforms, unions begin to arise
FACTORY SYSTEM
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The factory
Gradually replaced the putting-out system
Factory system required division of labor
Each worker performed a single task
Required a high degree of coordination
Work discipline, close supervision
Working conditions often harsh
Workers lost status
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Not skilled
Just wage earners
Harsh work discipline
Fast pace of work
Frequent accidents
Industrial protest
Saboteurs
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Flemish workers throw wooden shoes into machines
Shoes were called sabots hence saboteur
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Struck against mills and destroyed machines, 1811 and 1816
Fourteen Luddites hung in 1813, and the movement died
Luddites in England
Weaver rebellions in Germany against power looms
SPREAD OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
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The First Industrial Revolution
Largely Atlantic based 1750 – 1850
British industrial monopoly
1750 to 1800
Forbade immigration of skilled workers
Continental System of Napoleon
Abolished internal trade barriers in western Europe, sped up process
Dismantled guilds
Belgium, France
Moved toward industrialization by mid-nineteenth century
Belgium was first as it most resembled England, closest ports
Germany
Bismarck sponsored heavy industry, arms, shipping
Built railroads to move German army around, benefiting commerce
Rails required steel, coal
Eventually developed chemicals, electrical industries
The United States
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Slow to start: few laborers, little capital
Cotton and Textiles began revolution
British craftsmen started cotton textile industry in New England, 1820s
Southern cotton was going to England, diverted to New England factories
New England most resembled Old England conditions
Civil War led to explosion of steel, iron, armaments, clothing, food production
Rail networks developed in 1860s
Integrated various regions of United States
Facilitated export markets, development of ports
Developed electrical, transportation industries
MAPPING THE REVOLUTION
INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
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Mass production
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Provided cheaper goods for all classes of society
Eli Whitney
Mass production of interchangeable parts for firearms
Cotton Gin made cotton harvesting, production cheaper
Henry Ford
Introduced assembly line
Applied to automobile production
Industrialization
Expensive
Required large capital investment
Structural Changes of Industry
Large-scale corporations with investors
New laws protected investors from liability
Monopolies, trusts, and cartels
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Competitive associations
Vertical organization (Monopoly)
One company controls all aspects of production within a single industry
One company dominates whole market
Oil: Drilling, processing, refining, by-products
Rockefeller's Standard Oil Co. (Exxon)
Horizontal organization (Trusts or cartel)
Owns all industries from manufacturing to marketing of a common product
Group of companies work together to control market, all aspects of products
IG Farben: world's largest chemical company
Most countries distrustful of monopolies although cartels tolerated
GENERALIZED EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Increased Population
Increased Urbanization
Increased migration, immigration
Increased wealth
Spread of wealth to middle class
New consumerism
New roles for women, poor, minorities
Change in child rearing, childhood
Rise of a technical, managerial class
Invention of leisure time, common culture
Increasing demand for social reform, worker rights
Increased life span, living standard; decreased death
rate
• Emancipation of slaves, serfs
WESTERN INDUSTRY & FAMILIES
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New social classes created by industrialization
Captains of industry: a new aristocracy of wealth
Middle class: managers, accountants, new professionals
Working class: unskilled, poorly paid, vulnerable
Dramatic changes to the industrial family
Sharp distinction between work and family life
Worked long hours outside home
Family members led increasingly separate lives
Fathers and Sons
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Gained increased stature, responsibility in industrial age
Middle- and upper-class men were sole providers
Valued self-improvement, discipline, and work ethic
Imposed these values on working-class men
Workers often resisted work discipline
Working-class culture: bars, sports, gambling, outlets away from work
Mothers and daughters
Opportunities narrowed by industrialization
Working women could not bring children to work in mines or factories
Middle-class women expected to care for home and children
Increased opportunities for women to work in domestic service
Children
Many children forced to work in industry to contribute to family support
1840s, Parliament began to regulate child labor
1881, primary education became mandatory in England
POPULATION GROWTH
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The Fruits of Industry
Industrialization raised material standards of living
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Mass production made luxuries into common goods
Workers received pay and able to buy goods, foods
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Reduced death rate of adults and children
Reduced deaths due to childbirth
Increased life span
Decreased infant mortality
Declining birthrate in response to declining mortality
Voluntary birth control through contraception
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Populations of Europe, America, 1700 to 1900
Asia populations rose due to food supplies
Increasing urbanization especially of
Better diets and improved sanitation
Impact on Population
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Port cities
Industrial cities
World Effects
Change typical of industrialized countries
In Non-Western Nations
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During 19th century very little change
Change confined to port cities
Japan was the exception
DOMESTIC MIGRATION
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Industrialization
Drew migrants from countryside to urban centers
By 1900, In Europe and Anglo-North America
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50 percent of population of industrialized nations lived in towns
More than 150 cities with over 100,000 people
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Shoddy houses, fouled air, inadequate water
By late 19th century
Urban problems
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Governments passed legislation to clean up cities
Passed building codes, built sewer systems
Internal Migration
Settlement of Frontiers by population centers
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Existing populations expand into plains, prairies
Facilitated by railroads, technology
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Westward Movement in USA, Canada, Australia
Settlement of Siberia by Russia
Great Trek by Afrikaaners
Chinese settlement of Yangtze, west, Manchuria
Settlement of Brazilian, Argentine interior plains
Examples
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGREDATION
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First era in history when environment seriously threatened by humans
Causes of Environmental Stress
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Industrialization
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Technology
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Demographic Stress
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Environmental Shift
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Pollution increased significantly especially in cities, water
Ability to destroy land for resources increased due to technology
Examples: Industrial areas of Western Europe, Eastern USA
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Iincreased production on land, from resources
Marginal lands could be settled, exploited
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Urbanization, expanding cities destroyed habitats
High Population Densities supported by food
Many acres moved to unproductive status
Examples: Western Europe, Asian/Indian port cities
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Farming, ranching changed face of landscape
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Ranch animals introduced new fauna, diseases, threats
Farming horticulture introduced new flora
Examples: Americas, Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Hawaii
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Switch from subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture changed face of environment
Forests were the most effected by this shift
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Overfishing of areas began, overforesting of areas
Many died out due to competition from domestic flora, fauna
Many were exterminated due to hunting: Passenger Pigeon, Dodo
Examples: United States, Australia, New Zealand
Extinction, Endangerment of Flora, Fauna
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
• Malthusian Economics
– Predicted human population always outpaced food, supplies
– Only natural disasters, wars, famine keep population low
– Did not figure in technology, inventions, science
• Key Characteristics
– Population
• Increased from 900 million (1800) to 1.6 billion (1900)
• In Europe, Asia, North America
• Scientific, medical advances
– Increase life span, infant survival rate
– Decrease death rate, death of mother during childbirth
– New hygiene
– Food supply increases
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Lightly, uninhabited areas brought under cultivation
World trade allows for foods to reach areas quicker
Staples in world trade due to refrigeration, canning, ships
Agronomy, animal husbandry increase yields, variety, quality
– Fruits of the Columbian Exchange
– Many nations begin to export quantities of wheat, meat
– Population Movements
• Internal Migration to unsettled lands, international Migrations
• Urbanization
• End of Slave Trade necessitated labor based migration
GRAPHING MALTHUS & DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
LIMITS TO REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS
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Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: women's rights
– Enlightenment call for equality not generally extended to women
• Women used logic of Locke to argue for women's rights
• Mary Astell attacked male dominance in the family
• Mary Wollstonecraft: women possessed same natural rights as men
– Women crucial to revolutionary activities
• French revolution granted women rights of education, property, no vote
• Olympe de Gouges's declaration of full citizenship for women too radical
• Women made no significant gains in other revolutions
– Gained ground in the nineteenth century in United States and Europe
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• Seneca Falls Declaration of Women’s Rights
• Women involved in abolitionist, temperance, reform movements
Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: slavery
– Movements to end slave trade
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Began in 1700s, gained momentum during revolutions
In 1807 British Parliament outlawed slave trade
US ended it in 1807; other states followed
Illegal slave trade to Brazil, in Africa, internal within US continued
– Movements to abolish slavery: difficult because of property rights
• In Haiti, much of South America, end of slavery came with independence
• In Western society, campaign against slave trade became abolish slavery
– Abolition
• In Britain in 1833, France in 1848, the United States in 1865, Brazil in 1888
• Last areas to abolish slavery were Africa and Muslim world
• Abolition brought legal freedom for slaves but not political equality
CHANGES IN WESTERN SOCIETY AFTER 1850
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Changes for workers
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Growth of white collar work force
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Better wages
Decrease of working hours
Rise of leisure time
Increased health, physical risks
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Managerial
Entrepreneurial
Bureaucratic workers of government
Secretarial, office workers
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Growth of blue collar work force
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Decrease in ratio of farmers to whole society
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Increased roles for women due to industrialization, education
– Industrial
– Technical
– Miners
– Technology increased productivity
– Increased productivity lower prices, reduced need for farmers
– Farmers began to migrate to cities, industry; immigrate abroad
WOMEN IN SOCIETY
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Active in Revolutions, Change but limited results 1750-1914
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Women served as auxiliaries to men
Would not press changes
Women tended to lack mass support
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From legislators
From other women
Female revolutionaries
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Tended to put class interests above gender issues
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Women belief that their place was at home, with children
Restoration of Conservative elite often limited any gains by women
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Industrialization radically altered working women’s roles publicly and privately
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Political activism, issues resurrected by middle class, upper class women
Learned to publish and to organize; promoted education
Political activism tended towards
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Favored social reform, economic relief
Initially very influential in French Revolution
Post-Revolutionary Era Women’s Rights
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Women moved into the work force in great numbers
Women began to earn some money, independence, began to organize
Women often still held responsible for home, children, family too
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Opposition to state supported prostitution
Aide to unwed mothers, orphans, widows with children
Temperance Leagues were largely dominated by women
Women became very active in abolitionism, peace movements
Suffrage Movement
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Women demanded right to vote; strongest in settler countries where women had
major influence
Came slowly: 1 nation in 1900; 3 in 1910; 15 in 1920
CULT OF DOMESTICITY
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Gender and Social Changes produced Industrial, Agriculture Revolutions
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19TH Century Social Ideal
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Decreased death rate from child birth
Women tend to have fewer children as more survive
Death of women in child birth falls
Raises live span of women over that of men
First time women began to live longer than men
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Women were expected to take care of family
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Public roles of women limited
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Women acquire a public role
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Reality Was
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Children, home were more important
Women expected to have children, look after the family
Industrial Revolution changes, threatens ideal
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Women admitted to work force in great numbers
Acquired purchasing power, influence
Acquired increased independence from husbands
Extra income helped family, increased family health
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Female workers not treated same as males
Women with families still had to take care of families
Child Rearing Changes
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Prior to 19th century: 1/3 children die in first year – not much attachment until one
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More interest in children as they survive; fewer children in family; more quality time
Relationship between children, parents now much closer
Tendency to introduce earlier childhood education, compulsory primary education
THE FIRST “WORLD” WARS
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1750 - 1765
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War of Austrian Succession and Rise of Prussia
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Colonial Wars
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France, Spain, England, Portugal, Dutch, Russia, Sweden in wars
Rise of Prussia as a great power, England as a super power
Showed balance of power doctrine at its fullest
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Battles fought around the world
– Colonies changed hands, colonials effected
– English, French contest for North America
– France lost influence in North America, Caribbean, India
England emerges as world’s super power
– British navy rules seas unopposed
– Acquires former French North American colonies
– Acquires preeminent influence in India
– Acquires right to supply slaves to Spanish Americas
– Spain, Portugal, Dutch no longer great powers
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American Revolution 1776 – 1783 and the Wider World Impact
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British colonists revolt, inspired by Enlightenment
American ships ranged seas attacking English
Dutch, French, Spanish support colonial efforts
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Russians, Prussian, Swedes pledge an armed neutrality against UK
Treaty of Ghent ends war, gives Americans independence
Canada begins to rise as British loyalists immigrate to area
Great impact, influence on Latin Americans, European reformers
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UK fought to protect its Caribbean Sugar islands as more important the 13 colonies
Forced British to develop Canada as an alternative to the 13 colonies
Led to bankruptcy of France and French Revolution
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Dispatch aid, ships, troops to fight British in colonies, on seas
Spain invades English colonies to support colonists
The Economic Impact
REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS
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Revolution
A popular idea, means to an end
A way to restructure society
Popular sovereignty
Relocating sovereignty in the people
Traditional monarchs
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Claimed a "divine right" to rule
Derived from God, unquestionable
Monarch unanswerable to people
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Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king
Glorious Revolution of 1688
Constitutional Limitations
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Made the monarch responsible to the people
John Locke's theory of contractual government
Authority comes from the consent of the governed
Freedom and equality
Demands for freedom of worship
Freedom of expression, assembly
Demands for political and legal equality
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Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract
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Women, Peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color
Originally only extended to tax paying males with education
Equality not extended to all
Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence
TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS
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Aristocratic Revolution
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Aristocracy fights to preserve privileges
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English Glorious Revolution (1688) is an example
Bourgeois (liberal) Revolution
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Middle class seeks rights equal to nobility
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Often against royal absolutism
Rarely for other classes rights
Usually ends with constitution, limits on monarchy
Extension of franchise, ability to hold office
Issues of taxation often involved
Reforms limited and rarely radical, franchise limited
American (1776), French (1789)
French Revolutions 1830, 1848
Mass revolutions
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Most of society effected and involved
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Nationalist Revolutions
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Often goals are quite radical
Methods to achieve are often quite violent
Polish Revolutions of 1830, 1863
Belgian Revolution (1830), Greek Revolution (1822)
Italian, German, Austrian, Hungarian Revolutions (1848)
Socialist Revolutions
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Worker-Oriented or Peasant-Oriented
Parisian Communard (1870), Russian Revolution (1905)
REFORM
• Often system allowed change without radical means, violence
• Reform was a theme of 1750 – 1914
• Reform movements
– Increased, responsive democratic representation, institutions
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Expansion of male suffrage was the key issue
One of the hallmarks of a democratic society
Very successful in US, Western Europe, British settler colonies, Japan
Less so in Latin America, Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, Asia
– Abolition of slavery, serfdom
• Abolition movement was very successful
• Other forms of coercive labor replaced them
• Racial, social equality did not follow
– Women Rights
• One goal was full female franchise
• Not achieved until after 1914 but progress
– Reform Movements
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Spanish Bourbon Reforms (1780s)
Pombal’s Reforms Portugal (1780s)
Chartist Movement (1820s)
Great Reform Movement (1830s)
Progressive Movement, US (1890s)
FRENCH REVOLUTION & NAPOLEON
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Summoning the Estates General
Financial crisis: half of government revenue went to national debt
King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to raise new taxes
Many representatives wanted sweeping political and social reform
First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried to limit Third Estate (commoners)
National Assembly
Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17 June 1789
Demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty
Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities
National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen"
"Liberty, equality, and fraternity“: slogan and values of the National Assembly
The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered the role of church
France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791
The Convention and the Reign of Terror
Replaced National Assembly under new constitution, 1791
Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to restore ancien régime
Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic
King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette executed, 1793
Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94 in "reign of terror"
Revolutionary changes: in religion, dress, calendar, women's rights
The Directory, 1795-1799
A conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention
Executed the Jacobin leader Robespierre, July 1794
Napoleonic France was Enlightened Despotism
Brought stability: blended monarchy, autocracy, democracy
Made peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope
Reformed French economic, banking system: mercantilism
Extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews
Civil Code of 1804: political and legal equality for all adult men
Code Napoleon: becomes one of the world’s great legal traditions
Restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press
THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM
THE FRENCH & NAPOLEON
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An Era of Global Conflict from 1792 to 1814
French Revolution as Interaction
French revolutionary success sparked interest throughout Europe, Americas
Many revolutionary regimes set up by French armies in Italy, Germany
Haiti rebels during French Revolution
Spanish American colonies achieve independence
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Brilliant military leader; upset the Balance of Power
Became general in royal army at 24
Supported the revolution; defended the Directory
His invasion of Egypt was defeated by British army
Overthrew Directory; named himself consul for life
Napoleon's empire
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1804, proclaimed himself emperor
Dominated the European continent
Annexed lands in Italy, Netherlands, Germany, Spain; controlled other thrones
Defeated Austria and Prussia, Occupied Spain and Portugal, allied with Scandinavia
Perennial Enemy: Great Britain who controlled the high seas
Disastrous invasions of Spain, Russia in 1812 destroyed Grand Army
The fall of Napoleon
Forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in 1814, exiled on Elba
Escaped, returned to France, raised army
Defeated by British in 1815 at Waterloo, exiled to St. Helena
Collapse of much of Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French empires
Great Britain became literally the only surviving major colonial power
EUROPE 1812 & 1815
EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES
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Congress of Vienna was a Conservative restoration
Restored Balance of Power; ruled through great powers
Monarchy was at heart of conservatism
Conservatism
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Called the Ancien Regime
Resisted change, opposed revolutions
Importance of continuity, tradition, aristocracy
Edmund Burke
Viewed society as organism that changed slowly over time
American Revolution: natural, logical outcome of history
French Revolution: violent and irresponsible
Liberalism
Welcomed controlled change as an agent of progress
Strongly middle class, support economic reform, education to help industrialization
Wanted to reform political structure, increase electorate slightly
Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written constitutions
Limits on state power, interference in individual freedoms
John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom and minority rights
Radicalism
Accepted liberal ideas but wanted universal voting rights
Many wanted outright democracy, social reforms in interests of lower classes
A few were socialists, attacked all private property, class status
Saw radical solutions (revolution) as only way to status quo
Represented by French Revolution, democracy, early nationalism
Nationalism often both radical and liberal but largely anti-conservative
NATIONALISM
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Born in France (Joan of Arc), spread abroad during French Revolution
Idea began as radical, adopted by liberals, used by conservatives
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Cultural nationalism
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Political nationalism more intense in the nineteenth century
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European Examples
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World-wide spread
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Zionism
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An idea which could unify society across social classes
Many aspects similar to religion, faith
Loyalty to state often replaces loyalty to church, monarch
Dominated 19th century
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An expression of national identity
Emphasized common historical experience
Used folk culture, literature, music
Illustrated national spirit, distinctiveness
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Demanded loyalty, solidarity from national group
Minorities sought independence as national community
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Belgian independence movement
German, Italian unification movements
Slavic, Greek, Rumanian nationalisms in Central Europe, Balkans
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Contact with Europeans introduced others to idea of nationalism
Nationalism often brought with it western ideas, structures
Strongest in Middle East, India, Japan
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Jewish nationalism as a response to European anti-Semitism
Movement founded by Theodor Herzl to create Jewish state in Palestine
Jewish state of Israel finally created in 1948
IMAGINED COMMUNITIES
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Concert of Europe 1815 - 1860
– Congress of Vienna, 1814-15
• Conservative victory: restore old order after defeat of Napoleon
• Maintained balance of power in Europe for a century
• Failed in repressing nationalist and revolutionary ideas
– Concert of European great powers called Holy Alliance
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UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, France working in “concert”
Attempted to prevent revolutions, change
Intervened militarily to oppose change
Often forced to limit, control changes
Nationalist rebellions
– Against old order throughout nineteenth century
– 1800s: Haiti, Latin America
– 1820s
• Greek Revolution: rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827
• Mehmet Ali in Egypt, defeated by French, English, Russians
– 1830/1848
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• Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Austria, Germany
• Conservatism usually restored but revolutionary ideals persisted
Imagined Communities
– Groups begin to form based on a perceived sense of community
– Each group defined by agreed upon set of values, goals
THE SOCIALIST CHALLENGE
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Socialism
Arose as an outgrowth of the Industrial Revolution
Accelerated by the horrible conditions of the workers in the cities
Utopian socialists
Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers
Established model communities based on principle of equality
Stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all children
Marxian Socialists (Communists)
Marx (1818-1883), Engels (1820-1895), leading socialists
Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic, unproductive
Critique of industrial capitalism
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Unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class
State, courts, police: all tools of the capitalist ruling class
The Communist Manifesto, 1848
Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to a communist revolution
Revolution would wipe away capitalism and establish a socialist society
“Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy capitalism
Socialism would follow; a fair, just, and egalitarian society
Ideas dominated European, international socialism throughout 19th century
Revisionism: Democratic Socialism and Reform Socialism
Combined aspects of socialism with democracy
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Public ownership of means of production, regulation of industries
Limits to private property, accumulation of wealth
Power achieved democratically through elections, trade unions
Social reform came gradually, through legislative measures
Regulated hours and restricted work for women and children
Under Bismarck, Germany provided medical insurance and social security
Trade unions formed to represent interests of industrial workers
Faced stiff opposition from employers and governments
Forced employers to be more responsive to workers' needs; averted violence
Socialist parties began to compete in elections, seek expanded electorate
UNIFICATION OF ITALY, GERMANY
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Italy
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After Congress of Vienna
Italy divided into small states: all states except Sardinia, Papacy ruled by foreign dynasties
Austria was the preeminent power in Italy
Mazzini, Nationalist, formed Young Italy inspired uprisings against foreign rule
1848 Nationalist revolution destroyed by Austrian troops
Sardinia and Cavour
Italian Sardinia only ethnic Italian state
Prime Minister of Sardinia becomes leader of nationalists
Expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy, 1859 with French aide
Garibaldi
Revolutionary nationalist, democrat
Staged revolutions, later seized control of Southern Italy
1860-1870: Italian states united under Sardinia
Germany
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After Congress of Vienna Dominated by Austrian von Metternich
German Confederacy a collection of independent states dominated by Austria
Prussia the largest German state but limited in action by Austria
Metternich’s System: preserved conservatism, persecuted liberalism, hated nationalism
1848 Revolution
Destroyed by Austria
Ended hope of liberalism, constitutionalism, national unification
Left Prussia humiliated, looking for revenge
Prussian and Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
Created a united Germany through blood and iron
Used conservatism, militarism married with nationalism
Bismarck provoked three wars that swelled German pride
Defeated Austria, France to unify Germany under Prussia
1871, Prussian king proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich
MAPS OF UNIFICATION
RUSSIA: EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE
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Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as threat to old order
Government introduced reforms to improve bureaucracy
Made an alliance with the conservative powers of Europe to maintain order
December Uprising 1825
Death of Alexander I prompted some western-oriented officers to rebel
Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar
Nicholas I
Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality
State became very repressive, secret police
Policeman of Europe: used army to suppress revolutions
Suppressed rebellion in Poland
Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic problems
Serfdom Issue
Russia needed work force in order to industrial
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Serfdom not efficient
Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic development
Gap between western, eastern Europe economic systems
Emancipation of serfs by Alexander II begun in 1863
Due to loss in Crimean War
Serfs gained right to own land, got most of the land from nobles
Nobles kept best and gave worst to serfs
Serfs had no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax on land: kept them in permanent debt
Emancipation did not increase agricultural production
Tsar was careful to preserve aristocratic order; serfs received no political rights
Political and legal reforms followed
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1864: creation of zemstvos
Local assemblies with representatives from all classes
Tended to only see local interests and not national concerns; legal reform more successful
A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power
Small middle class grew; improved corps of army officers; middle class politicians, bureaucrats
Literacy increased; readership spread; some women enter intellectual community
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
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Nineteenth-century Russia
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Collapse of Napoleon left Russia as great power
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Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Conservatism
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Rise of Pan-Slavic Nationalism
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Russia dominates Eastern Europe (saved both Prussia, Austria)
Russia increased presence in Central Europe, Northern Europe
Russia wants to push into Ottoman SE Europe, SW Asia
Expands into Central Asia, Pacific
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Official government policy to uphold conservatism
Pre-destined Russia to oppose revolution, change everywhere
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Sought to control all Orthodox, Slavs
Brought Russia into conflict with Ottoman Empire, Austria in Balkans
Also wanted access to Mediterranean Sea
Hoped to seize control of Constantinople
War against the Ottoman Empire
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Numerous wars to acquire Turkish lands in SE Europe, Caucasus
Supported rise of Christian Balkan states under Russian influence
Crimean War 1853 - 1856
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France, Great Britain, Sardinia supported Ottomans
Crushing defeat; forced tsars to modernize army, industry
Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905
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Russian expansion into China, Korea met Japan
Japanese attack Russia without warning
Defeat two Russian fleets, armies
First defeat of a European by an Asian power
Japan emerges as a world military power
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
RUSSIAN REPRESSION & MARXISM
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Cycles of protest and repression
Peasants
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Often landless, no political power
Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform
Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as frustration heightened
Population increased as potato introduced, increasing pressures on society
Social Protest
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Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s
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Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship
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Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights, political representation
Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside
Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated
Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition
Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a Russian perspective
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Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants
Most opposed westernization, autocracy, capitalism
Many became peasant anarchists
Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881
Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler
Marxism and the Reality of Russia
Marx foresaw a revolution by workers
Russia lacked lack worker base; society was largely peasant
Workers tended to be radical but misdirected
Russia lacked a middle class running society prior to revolution
The Bolsheviks (Russian Marxists) & Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
From middle class bureaucratic family, was an intellectual
Argued that proletariat was developing in advance of revolution
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Felt Russia could have a revolution without a middle class phase
Organized an elite revolutionary party to lead workers, peasants
Organized the Bolsheviks
Party was secretive as Russian secret police everywhere
Infiltrated unions, workers organizations, peasant groups
Agitated against government, organized secret cells to lead revolution
MARXISM:
Workers
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LENINISM:
Will only succeed with
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revolutionaries
RUSSIAN INDUSTRIALIZATION
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Russia experienced the 2nd Industrial Revolution
Financed by exportation of minerals, oil, gas, grains
Development of rail system spurred other industries, exports
Strongest development in coal, steel areas of Ukraine
Rise of industrial cities: St. Petersburg. Moscow, Poland, Ukraine
Promoted by tsarist government, French government
France needed Russia as a military ally against Germany
Russia needed a modern economy to compete on world stage
Formula: French loans/investment, sale of Russian grain
Sergei Witte, Minister of finance, 1892-1903
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Supported railway construction
Military rationale: to move troops to border if attacked
But stimulated other industries including exports
Remodeled the state bank
Protected infant industries with tariffs, subsidies
Secured foreign loans especially from France
Industrial discontent intensified
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Rapid growth of factories, urban working class
Industrialization fell hardest on working classes
Government reaction
Outlawed unions, strikes
Workers increasingly radical socialists, Marxists, Populists
Business class supported autocracy, not reform
By 1900 produced half the world's oil, significant iron, armaments
TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILROAD
Cities, industry grew
up along railroad; mines
farms, opened in area
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905
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Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese War was cause
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Massive protests followed news of defeat
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Peasants seized landlords' property, killed landlords
Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in cities, factories
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Russia always diverted domestic tension by short, successful wars
In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman Empire
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Workers mounted general strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow
Peasant insurrections in countryside against landlords
Police repressions ineffective, just upset people
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Unarmed workers shot down by government troops
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Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists; Marxists marginalized
Sought to achieve ends without full scale revolution
A Fizzled Revolution
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Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma
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Stolypin Reforms
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Russian Marxists emboldened, reorganized, radicalized
Peasants, workers radicalized, unlikely to cooperate in future
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Many parties elected with conflicting interests
Unable, unwilling to cooperate
Rendered ineffective by tsar, bureaucracy
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Reforms allowed peasants to buy land; end redemptive payments
Small group of very successful peasant landowners began to arise
Rights for workers gradually ignored, cancelled
For the Future
THE SICK OLD MAN OF EUROPE
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The issue of Ottoman State called the Eastern Question
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By 1800s, Ottoman Empire a dying state
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At issue was whether to preserve or partition Ottoman Empire
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Multinational state
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Nationalism affects some subject peoples
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Central authority breaks down and provinces begin to rebel, break off
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Greeks, Slavs, Albanians, Rumanians, Jews, Arabs, Kurds, Armenians
Conflicting traditions demanding autonomy
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Mehmet Ali of Albania seeks independence
Muhammad Ali of Egypt seeks independence
Greek Rebellion in 1820 achieves independence
Serbs, Bulgars, Rumanians, Albanians follow in late 19th century
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Russians, Austrians prey on Ottoman Territory
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Balkan Wars and the Ottoman Empire
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Russians constantly looking to take over territory
Austrians, Germans, French, English oppose Russian designs
French, English interested in markets, protecting Suez Canal
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Congress of Berlin 1878
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Westerners intervene to protect Christians, economic interests
Often Russia was the loser and it bred Russian resentment
Balkan Wars led to a Russo-France alliance and the Austro-German alliance
England very troubled by late period German interest in Ottoman Empire
World War I was often called the last of the Balkan Wars
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Territory lost to Austria, Russia
Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania, Bulgaria declared independent
THE
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OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
A MULTINATIONAL EMPIRE
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Austria 1750 – 1814
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Austria in 1815 – 1860
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A collection of states ruled by the Hapsburg family who were also the Holy Roman Emperors
The Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman nor an empire
No common government, few common institutions (save Catholicism)
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The weakest, most threatened of Europe’s great powers
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Used force, coercion to prevent German, Italian nationalism
Opposed nationalism, liberalism, democracy
1848 Revolution nearly destroyed state
Russia intervened to suppress revolutions
Austria then intervened in Germany, Italy to suppress revolutions
Prussia fights to isolate Austria, unify Germany w/o Austria
Austria in 1866 – 1870
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Prime Minister Metternich dominated German Confederation, Italy
Defeated in 1858 by French-Sardinian Alliance; 1866 by Prussia
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Driven from German Confederation, Italy
Sees nationalism, German unification triumph under rival Prussia
Sees Italy united under Sardinia; Papal states erased
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Hungarians formed resistive group; 2nd largest nationality in empire
Agree to rule jointly with Hungarians; name changed to Austria-Hungary
1867 Ausgleich with Hungarians
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Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenians, Serbo-Croats, Poles, Ruthenians, Rumanians disenfranchised
Magyars insist upon assimilation of its peoples
Austria 1870 – 1914
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Industrialization occurs in Czech area but remains largely agrarian
Many citizens immigrate due to hardships, repressive rule of Magyars
State unable to reform as it is blocked by aristocrats, Germans, Magyars
State threatened by Pan-Slavic nationalism
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Forms an alliance with Germany to protect state
Opposes any form of national independence for Balkan Slavs, own Slavs
MAP OF CONFUSION
DIPLOMACY: BALANCE OF POWER & HEGEMONY
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Century: Era of Western hegemony in all areas
Balance of Power dominates century
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After Napoleon, great powers kept peace
Intervened in European affairs to maintain balance
Goals and Policies
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No one power should dominate
No nation should be eliminated
No permanent ideologies threaten peace
Brokered conferences to decide touchy issues
International Organizations
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Non-governmental Organizations new in history
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Red Cross
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Olympics
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International Laws
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Try to promote international accord
Establish cooperation
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Provide health care, relief following catastrophes
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Healthy competition
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Diplomacy reaches highest level during period
Rules of Peace and War
– Hague Conferences and Conventions
– Agreements create standards, rules of war, peace
– Neutrality was a key concept
– Civilians were not to be touched
PRE-WAR ALLIANCES
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Rival systems of alliance
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Germany forms alliances
Bismarck attempts to isolate France
Until 1890, Germany had alliances with all except France
Obligated allies to come to one another's defense
France and Russia
Found themselves isolated, fearful of Germany
Formed Double Entente to end their isolation
The Triple Alliance
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Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
Germany, Austria allied 1879
Italy joined in 1882 (Triple Alliance)
Others Allied States
Ottoman Empire: German railroads, reforms of military
Bulgaria and Rumania fearful of Russia and Serbia
The Double and Later Triple Entente
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France, Russia
Common enemy: Germany, common war plans
Worked together diplomatically
Why the United Kingdom joined
Due to rivalry with Germany over colonies and German construction of a navy
After German pre-war diplomacy seemed to lead to war
Shifting series of treaties ended with a military pact, 1914
Japan had a separate alliance with Great Britain for Asia Pacific
War plans: each power poised and prepared for war
Military leaders devised inflexible military plans and timetables
France's Plan XVII focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks
Germany's Schlieffen plan: swift attack on France, defend against Russia
ALLIANCES
c. 1914