Document 1930241

UNIVERSITY OF STOCKHOLM
INSTITUTE OF LINGUISTICS
PERILUS VIII
PERIL US mainly contains reports on current experimental work carried out in
the Phonetics Laboratory at the Unhfersity of Stockholm. Copies are available
from the Institute of Linguistics, University of Stockholm, S-106 9 1 Stockholm,
Sweden.
This issue of PERILUS was edited by Olle Engstrand, Mats Dufberg and
Johan Stark.
11
Institute of Linguistics
University of Stockholm
S-106 91 Stockholm
© 1988
F6rfattarna
ISSN 0282-6690
ill
THE PHONETICS LABORATORY GROUP
Ann-Marie Alme
Ulf Andersson
Leslie Bailey 1
Robert Bannert
Aina Bigestans
Peter Branderud
Una Cunningham-Andersson
Hassan Djamshidpey
Mats Dufberg
aile Engstrand
2
Garda Ericsson
Anders Eriksson
Ake Floren
3
Eva Holmberg
Diana Krull
Francisco Lacerda
Ingrid Landber
�
Bjorn Lindblom
Rolf Lindgren
James Lubker
6
Bertil Lyberg
5
Robert McAllister
Lennart Nord 7
Lennart Nordstrand
8
Liselotte Roug
Richard Schulman
Johan Stark
Hartmut TraunmOlier
Eva Oberg
1 Visiting from Department of Linguistics, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
2 Also Department of Phoniatrics, University Hospital, Link6ping
3 Also Research Laboratory of Electronics, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
4 Also Department of Linguistics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
5 Also Department of Communication Science and Disorders, University of Vermont,
Burlington,
Vermont, USA
6 Also Technology Department, Swedish Telecom, Stockholm
7 Also Department of Speech Communication and Music Acoustics, Royal l nstitute of Technology
(KTH), Stockholm
8 Also AB Consonant, Uppsala
IV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The current phonetic experimental research at the Institute of Linguistics is
sponsored in part by the following sources:
The Swedish Board for Planning and Coordination of
Research (FRN)
The Swedish Council for Research in the Humanities
and Social Sciences (HSFR)
The Swedish Natural Sciences Reseach Council (NFR)
The Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation (RJ)
The Swedish National Board for Technical
Development (STU)
The Swedish Cancer Society, The Cancer Foundation
The Swedish Institute
AI/manna arvsfonden
v
PREVIOUS ISSUES OF PERILUS
PERILUS 11978-1979
1. INTRODUCTION
Bjorn Lindblom and James Lubker
2. SOME ISSUES IN RESEARCH ON THE PERCEPTION OF
STEADY-STATE VOWELS
Vowel identification and spectral slope
Eva Agelfors and Mary Graslund
Why does [Q] change to [0] when Fo is increased? Interplay between
harmonic structure and formant frequency in the perception of vowel
guality
Ake Floren
Analysis and prediction of difference limen data for formant frequencies
Lennart Nord and Eva Sventelius
Vowel identification as a function of increasing fundamental frequency
Elisabeth Tenenholtz
Essentials of a psychoacoustic model of spectral matching
Hartmut TraunmOlier
3. ON THE PERCEPTUAL ROLE OF DYNAMIC FEATURES IN THE
SPEECH SIGNAL
Interaction between spectral and durational cues in Swedish vowel
contrasts
Anette Bishop and Gunilla Edlund
On the distribution of [h] in the languages of the world: is the rarity of
syllable final [h] due to an asymmetry of backward and forward
masking?
Eva Holmberg and Alan Gibson
On the function of formant transitions
I. Formant frequency target vs. rate of change in vowel identification
II. Perception of steady vs. dynamic vowel sounds in noise
Karin Holmgren
vi
Artificially clipped syllables and the role of formant transitions in
consonant perception
Hartmut TraunmOlier
4. PROSODY AND TOP DOWN PROCESSING
The importance of timing and fundamental frequency contour
information in the perception of prosodic categories
Bertil Lyberg
Speech perception in noise and the evaluation of language proficiency
Alan C. Sheats
5. BLOD - A BLOCK DIAGRAM SIMULATOR
Peter Branderud
PERILUS 111979-1980
Introduction
James Lubker
A study of anticipatory labial coarticulation in the speech of children
Berlin, Ingrid Landberg and Lilian Persson
Asa
Rapid reproduction of vowel-vowel sequences by children
Ake Floren
Production of bite-block vowels by children
Alan Gibson and Lorrane McPhearson
Laryngeal airway resistance as a function of phonation type
Eva Holmberg
The declination effect in Swedish
Diana Krull and Siv Wandeback
Compensatory articulation by deaf speakers
Richard Schulman
Neural and mechanical response time in the speech of cerebral palsied
subjects
Elisabeth Tenenholtz
An acoustic investigation of production of plosives by cleft palate
speakers
Garda Ericsson
vii
PERILUS III 1982-1983
Introduction
Bjorn Lindblom
Elicitation and perceptual judgement of disfluency and stuttering
Ann-Marie Alms
Intelligibility vs. redundancy - conditions of dependency
Sheri Hunnicut
The role of vowel context on the perception of place of articulation for
stops
Diana Krull
Vowel categorization by the bilingual listener
Richard Schulman
Comprehension of foreign accents. (A Cryptic investigation.)
Richard Schulman and Maria Wingstedt
Syntetiskt tal som hjalpmedel vid korrektion av dovas tal
Anne-Marie Oster
PERILUS IV 1984-1985
Introduction
Bjorn Lindblom
Labial coarticulation in stutterers and normal speakers
Ann-Marie Alms
Movetrack
Peter Branderud
Some evidence on rhythmic patterns of spoken French
Danielle Duez and Yukihoro Nishinuma
On the relation between the acoustic properties of Swedish voiced
stops and their perceptual processing
Diana Krull
Descriptive acoustic studies for the synthesis of spoken Swedish
Francisco Lacerda
Frequency discrimination as a function of stimulus onset characteristics
Francisco Lacerda
V111
Speaker-listener interaction and phonetic variation
Bjorn Lindblom and Rolf Lindgren
Articulatory targeting and perceptual consistency of loud speech
Richard Schulman
The role of the fundamental and the higher formants in the perception
of speaker size, vocal effort, and vowel openness
Hartmut TraunmOlier
PERILUS V 1986-1987
About the computer-lab
Peter Branderud
Adaptive variability and absolute constancy in speech signals: two
themes in the quest for phonetiC invariance
Bjorn Lindblom
Articulatory dynamics of loud and normal speech
Richard Schulman
An experiment on the cues to the identification of fricatives
Hartmut TraunmOlier and Diana Krull
Second formant locus patterns as a measure of consonant-vowel
coarticulation
Diana Krull
Exploring discourse intonation in Swedish
Madeleine Wulffson
Why two labialization strategies in Setswana?
Mats Dufberg
Phonetic development in early infancy - a study of four Swedish
children during the first 18 months of life
Liselotte Roug, Ingrid Landberg and Lars Johan Lundberg
A simple computerized response collection system
Johan Stark and Mats Dufberg
Experiments with technical aids in pronunciation teaching
Robert McAllister, Mats Dufberg and Maria Wallius
ix
PERILUS VI FALL 1987
Effects of peripheral auditory adaptation on the discrimination of
speech sounds (Ph.D. thesis)
Francisco Lacerda
PERILUS VII MAY 1988
Acoustic properties as predictors of perceptual responses: a study of
Swedish voiced stops (Ph.D. thesis)
Diana Krull
CONTENTS OF PERILUS VIII
Some remarks on the origin of the "phonetic code"
Bjorn Lindblom
...................... . . .. . .... . ... . . ........ ................... . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Formant undershoot in clear and citation form speech
Bjorn Lindblom and Seung-Jae Moon
........... . ............ . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
On the systematicity of phonetic variation in spontaneous speech
aile Engstrand and Diana Krull
. . . . . . . . ... . . . ................... . ... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
20
34
Discontinuous variation in spontaneous speech
aile Engstrand and Diana Krull
.48
Paralinguistic variation and invariance in the characteristic
frequencies of vowels
Hartmut TraunmOlier
54
Analytical expressions for the tonotopic sensory scale
Hartmut TraunmOlier
93
.. . . . ... . ........... . ..... . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
... . ... . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Attitudes to immigrant Swedish A literature review and
preparatory experiments
Una Cunningham-Andersson and aile Engstrand
1 03
Representing pitch accent in Swedish
Leslie M. Bailey
153
-
. . .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .... . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some remarks
on the origin of the "phonetic code"*
Bjorn Lindblom
Departments of Linguistics
University of Texas at Austin
and
Stockholm University
*Paper
presented
Dyslexia:
Aspects
at
on
the
Symposium
Memory
on
Functions,
Interactions,
sponsored by
Rodinensis Pro
Remediatione,
in
June
Wenner-Gren Center, Stockholm Sweden.
Hemispheric
Developmental
Sequencing and
the
Academia
1988
at
the
INTRODUCTION:
THE ELUSIVE PHONEME
Human languages exhibit duality
(Hockett 1958)
means
that
they
make
combinatorial
use
of
which
discrete units at two levels of structure:
Elements
carrying meaning (words,
morphemes)
are combined to
f orm phrases and sentences according to syntactical
rules.
Phonemes
are
combined
to
f orm
words
and
morphemes according to phonological- rules.
Apparently
no
other
species
codes
its
communicative signals in this combinatorial way. In all
languages the building blocks of spoken words are vowel
and
consonant
phonemes.
In
animal
communication
systems, on the other hand, meaningf ul elements cannot
be f ormed by systematic use of discrete units since
they
lack
such
units.
The
signals
are
Gestalts.
Inventories are limited and typically consist of no
more than 10- 40 holistic patterns
(Wilson 1975) .
By
comparison,
human vocabularies can become
extremely
large owing to the combinatorial power of the phonemic
principle. Once acquired this "phonetic code" enables
the normal child to begin, by its eighteenth month or
so, to learn half a dozen new words a day, so that by
six years
of
age
it
und erstands
seven
to
eleven
thousand phonetic f orms,
or about ten percent of an
adult's vocabulary (Studdert-Kennedy 1983, 1987)
We are thus led to conclude
that the property of
dual structure is unique
to hum an langauges.
It 1S
linguistically universal. And it is the key to their
unique expressiveness.
'Slips
of
the
tongue'
(spoonerisms
and
other
speech errors) - e g "our g!leer old gean" f or "our gear
old g!leen"
provide strong evidence that the adult
language user's production of speech is organized in
terms of phonemic segments (Fromkin 1980, MacNeilage,
- 2 -
Studdert- Kenned y
and
Lindblom
1985).
Interestingly,
'slips of
the hand' are reported to occur in sign
language (Klima and Bellugi 1979: 126-146).
Such f acts
along with other ind ependent observations confirm the
assumption that also sig n langua ge uses the method of
combining abstract building blocks, i e hand shapes
like phonemes by themselves totally devoid of meaning to
f orm
the
complex
signs
of
their
vocabularies.
Accordingly,
d uality and the principle of
phonemic
coding cannot be said
to be unique to the vocal­
auditory med ium (Bellugi and Studd ert-Kenned y 1980)
Demonstrably the phonetic cod e of f ers an extremely
powerf ul method of coding semantic inf ormation. Clearly
it would not be possible f or a linguist to d escribe
langua ge structure, whether spoken or signed ,
without
the recognition of the phonemic organization of the
lexicon.
The phoneme represents a major d iscovery of
twentieth-century linguistics (Fischer- J¢rgensen 1975).
Yet the phoneme remains elusive to those who stud y
the physical and behavioral aspects of language use.
Neither in articulatory movements nor in the speech
signal d o phonemes appear as bead s on a necklace. Their
correlates in the signal d o not f orm segments that are
sharply
d elimited
along
the
time
axis.
And
those
correlates
cannot
be
unambiguously
identif ied
irrespective of contex t. These dif f iculties are known
as the segmentation ' and invariance problems
(Perkell
and Klatt 1986, Fant 1988, Liberman 1988). Large-scale
recognition of human speech by computer still awaits
the
successf ul
resolution
of
these
classical
theoretical issues.
At this point the student of reading would want to
intersperse
that
the
alphab et
which
ref lects
the
phonemic segmentation of speech, was d eveloped late in
the
evolutionary
history
of
language,
perhaps
no
earlier than 3500--4 000 years ago. He would also point
out that readers tend to vary with respect to their
a bility to a nalyze written ma terials phonolog ica lly.
Poor readers lack phonemic awareness
(Liberman 1987,
Lundberg, Olof sson and Wall 1980, Lundberg 1987)
They
have
greater
d if f iculties
segmenting
word s
into
phonemes than good read ers.
According ly we f ind that the research interests of
those
studying
speech
and
those
stUdying
reading
converge on the baf f ling but admittedly powerf ul notion
of the phoneme. How could such a complex structure ha ve
evolved? The goal of the present pa per is to shed some
lig ht on that question.
I shall make my presentation in two steps.
We
beg in by f irst considering how the phonetic values o f
phonemes might ha ve developed.
In other w ord s, how do
phonetic systems evolve? We then use our tentative
.
- 3 -
answer to
that questio n to elucidate the o rigin of the
Where did the pho nemic principle co me
units themselves?
fro m?
ARTICULATORY AND
PERCEPTUAL
PHONE TIC SYSTEMS EVOLVE?
CONSTRAINTS
I:
HOW
DO
The majo r dimensio ns that linguists traditio nally
use to describe vo wels are:
(i) the degree of rounding
of the lips and the po sitio n o f the to ngue alo ng (ii) a
front-back
and (iii)
a high-low dimensio n (Ladef o ged
1982 ) . The typo lo gical data used in the present paper
FIGURE 1
I
%
100
50
o
u
'U"
o
O
·:>
include vo w el systems fro m o ver 200 languages (Cro thers
1978) w ho se vo w el qualities were specified in relatio n
to a maximal universal set with fro nt, central o r back,
ro unded o r unro unded and seven po sitio ns o n the high­
lo w continuum. The mo st f avo red invento ries are listed
in Table 1.
Figure
1
sho ws
supplementary
data
fro m
an
independent investigatio n o f 317 languages (Maddieso n
- 4 -
TABLE
l.
Mo st favo red vo w el systems o bserved
co rpus o f o ver 200 languages (Cro thers 1 978)
INVENTORY SIZE
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
9
VOWE L
1 a
1 a
1 a
1 a
1 a
1
a
i a
1
a
1 a
1 a
QUALITIE S
u
u t
+
u
u €. "
u E t
u € :> :t::
u E ,;) e
u
e 0 :i: �
u � ;) e 0
u E. ::> e 0
3:
�
in
a
NO OF LG' S
23
13
9
55
5
29
7
14
11
7
1984) .
The o ccurrence o f the mo st frequent symbo ls
have been plo tted o n a tw o - dimensio nal pro je ctio n o f
the universal set. Bo th so urces o f data co nverge in
demo nstrating that only a small subset of the available
qualities are bro ught into play. We f urther no te that
there is a clear preference fo r 'peripheral vo wels'
such as Ii e t a � 0 ul and a relative disfavo ring o f
Iy 0 .a y 1M. I. Also high- lo w co ntrasts are mo re co mmo n
than
f ro nt-back
and
ro unded-unro unded
o ppo sitio ns.
These
systematic
trends
represent
rather
drastic
departures fro m the systems w e wo uld generate simply by
drawing invento ries at rando m fro m the max imal set o f
universal vo wel types. Ho w do we explain such patterns?
Here is a brief summary o f a theo ry develo ped to
acco unt
fo r
the
o bserve d
regularities
but
w ho se
co mpo nents o riginally co me f ro m several independently
mo tivated
research
themes.
(Fo r
an
ex haustive
descriptio n o f the research repo rted in the present and
the f o llo w ing sectio ns see Lindblo m,
MacNeilage and
Studdert- Kennedy
fo rthco ming).
The
theo ry
can
be
presented in three parts.
It pro vides quantitative
definitio ns
of
the
space
of
"po ssible
vo w els",
a
co nstraint
on
"pho netic
discriminability'"
and
a
criterio n fo r selecting the "o ptimal system".
The
po int
of
de parture
is
a
physio lo gically
mo tivated, numerical mo del (Lindblo m and Sundberg 1971)
w hich takes specificatio ns o f the po sitio n o f the jaw ,
to ngue, larynx and the lips as its input and w ho se
o utput is the shape (area functio n) o f the vo cal tract
f o r an arbitrary,
but physio lo gically po ssible vo w e l
articulatio n.
The aco ustic pro perties o f such vo cal
tract shape s can be ascertained by me ans o f establishe d
metho ds o f aco ustic the o ry (Fant 1960). The audito ry
pro pe rtie s are derived by transf o rming the aco ustic
descriptio n o f a vo w el w hich is given in terms o f its
harmo nic spectrum into an audito ry representatio n. This
- 5 -
last ste p employs computational models that capture
e sse ntial characteristics of the auditory periphe ry as
re veale d by psycho acoustic re se arch (Schro eder,
Atal
the class of vo w els,
or
and Hall 1979). Acco rdingly,
the
vowel
space,
generate d
by
this model
can
be
de scribe d
in
articulatory,
acoustic
or
auditory
dime nsions.
Since
the
above -me ntioned
de f initio ns
quantif y ge ne ral aspects of oral physiology, aco ustics
and he aring that are in no w ay spe cial to spe e ch w e can
view the vow e l space as a te ntative hypo thesis about
the a
prio ri range
of physical sounds unive rsally
available
for
the
linguistic
selection
of
vowel
co ntrasts.
The the ory analyzes phonetic discriminability into
an auditory and a sensori-moto r aspect. It can be sho w n
that it is po ssible to predict the auditory diffe rence
or distance that a listene r assigns to an arbitrary
pair o f vo w els (Blado n and Lindblom 1981) from
�"S-
AUDij=c
(f I
o
Ei (z)-Ej (z)12
dz)1/2
(1)
where c is a co nstant and Ei (z) and E" (z) represent
"excitatio n patterns" calibrated in psyc1 oaco ustically
motivated dimensions.
The interval z=O-24. 5,
in Bark
units,
correspo nds to the frequency range o f human
hearing (Schroeder, Atal and Hall 1979) . There is also
data fro m experiments using the technique of Direct
Magnitude Estimation (Stevens 1975) . These experiments
compared subjects'
judgements o f movement along the
dimensions of jaw o pening and front-back positioning o f
the tongue. The DME results indicated that subjectively
jaw
movements
appeared
mo re
exte nsive
than
tongue
movements altho ugh displacements were equal in terms o f
physical measures (Lindblo m and Lubker 1985) . On the
basis
of
these
findings
an
articulatory
distance
metric,
ARTi" '
was
derived
f or
the
vow el
space
(Lindblo m 198 � )
Taking the product of the articulatory
and
the
audito ry
. matrice s
we
e xpress
phone tic
discriminability as
Dij
=
(2)
ARTij*AUDij
Given
the
definitio ns
of
the
space
and
the
discriminability measure we are in a po sition to ask:
If vow e l systems were se e n as evolutionary adaptatio ns
to the idio syncratic shape of the vo w el space and to
selectio n pressures favo ring maximally discriminable
vow e l co ntrasts what wo uld they be like? This que stio n
w as addre sse d in a series of computatio nal expe rime nts
1n w hich optimal system w as de rive d by computing:
i- I
k
(l/Dij)2
.... minimize d
(3)
L.
L
�:' '2.. j=1
---
- 6 -
TABLE 2.
------ -
OBS ER V E D
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INVENTORY SIZE:
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COMPUTED
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(23)
INVENTORY SIZE:
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(13 )
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INVENTORY SIZE:
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INVENTORY SIZE:
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(7)
f or all possible combinations generated by k=3 through
9 (inventory size) and n=19 (size of universal set) .
- 7 -
The results are presented in Table 2.
The lef t
co lumn restates the inf o rmatio n of
Table 1 and is
co mpared w ith the results o f the simulatio ns
(right
co lumn) . In no case do es the pro bability o f selecting a
co rrect system by pure chance exceed 10-3. If w e make a
gro ss co mpariso n in terms o f the number o f high- lo w
(vertical) and f ro nt- back (horizo ntal) co ntrasts there
is perfect agreement between the predictio ns and the
data. Lo o king at the individual qualities w e f ind that
certain discrepancies o ccur in systems with mo re than
six vo w els. Ho wever, in mo st cases they are o f f by no
mo re than a single step o n the nineteen-po int grid o f
the universal set.
It
appears
justif ied
to
co nclude
that
the
simulatio ns achieve a rather a clo se agreement w ith the
typo lo gical data. Such a result suppo rts the idea that
vo wel
systems
can
be
understo o d
as
f unctio nal
adaptatio ns to articulato ry and perceptual co nstraints.
FIGURE 2
30
VOWEL SYSTEMS CONTAINING:
BASIC SEGMENTS
w
(J
Z
w
a::
a::
:::>
(J
(J
o
I-
Z
w
(J
BASIC
.
�ND
ELABORATED
SEGMENTS
20
•
BASIC, ELABORATED,
COMPLEX
AND
SEGMENTS
10
a::
w
a..
o
o
5
10
15
20
25
INVENTORY SIZE
Acco rding
to
the
theo ry
presented
here
the
preference f o r 'peripheral' vo wels and the disf avo ring
of
' interio r'
vo w els
o riginates
in
an
interactio n
between a "demand" f o r discriminability o n the o ne hand
- w hich pro duces a dispersio n ef f ect displacing vo wels
to w ards
the
periphery
and
the
idio syncratic
pro perties o f the vo wel space o n the o ther
w hich
- 8 -
leaves more room f or high-low contrasts than f or f ront­
back and rounding gestures. As we broaden our f ield of
observation
the
above
conclusions
tend
to
be
reinforced. The vowel d ata just examined are limited to
systems of so-called 'plain' vowels. Many languages use
vowel series that have ad d itional attributes such as
apicalization, nasalization,
breathy or creak y voice,
etc: Ii%., 'e,
a,
01 as well as combinations of such
ad ditional f eat� re;: lair �:/. We classif ied the vow els
of the UPSID database (Maddieson 1984) into those three
groups:
Basic or plain,
Elaborated
(with ad d itional
features) and Complex (with combinations of elaborated
mechanisms) . Plotting the distribution of these types
as a f unction of inventory size we obtained the d iagram
shown in Figure 2.
It shows that small sy stems use
Basic
segments,
medium-sized
invoke
Basic
and
Elaborated articulations. Large systems bring all three
types into play.
FIGURE 3
60
60
•
BASIC ARTICULATIONS
�
50
50
�
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
o
o
z
w
�
•
ELABORATED
•
COMPLEX
} ARTICULATIONS
en
III
o
u.
o
0:
w
a:l
::::!:
;:)
z
o
10
20"
30
40
50
60
o
10
20
30
40
50
60
TOTAL INVENTORY SIZE
We classif ied the consonants of UPSID in a similar
manner. Segments such as Ip t b d m . . 1 are treated as
nd
IpJ
t'
m
.
1
represent
Elaborated
Basic;
�
gestures;
Articulation;
that
combine
Elaborated
I. Examining
mechanisms are Complex: Itl:h qW �C cl
"
the occurrence of
these
consonant
categories as a
f unction of inventory size we find patterns closely
paralleling those
f or vow els.
Figure 3 presents a
representative subset of the UPSID corpus showing data
f rom 47 languages of the Af ro-Asiatic and the Ind o­
Pacif ic language groups. Each d ata point ref ers to a
.
.
.
.
- 9 -
.
.
given language.
The top diagram show s the number of
Basic obstruents as a f unction of total system size.
The bottom panel indicates the number of Elaborated and
Complex obstruents as a f unction of total sy stem size.
Once
more
we
see
that
small
sy stems
have
Basic
articulations, medium sy stems have Basic and Elaborated
gestures and large sy stems have all three ty pes. Also
note the saturation of Basic elements bey ond a certain
system
size
and
the
law f ul
linear
grow th
of
the
Elaborated and Complex data.
Our analysis indicates that know ing the size of a
vow el or consonant inventory w e can make some f airly
good
predictions
about
its
phonetic
contents.
The
motorically
most
elaborated
and
complex
phonetic
gestures
(e
g
clicks,
vowels
simultaneously
diphthongized and pharyngealized etc)
are likely to
occur in the largest inventories (as in ! Xu of the
Kalahari desert with its 148 segments) whereas small
systems (n<10,
e g Maori and Haw aiian)
would not be
expected to contain such sounds but to f avor elementary
articulations (p, t, m, e, a etc) . This Size Principle
makes sense if we assume that in small inventories
Basic articulations achieve suf f icient contrast whereas
larger sy stems place greater demands f or intrasy stemic
distinctiveness
and
theref ore
cause
additional
dimensions to be recruited and to be combined to f orm
more complex segments.
ARTI CULATORY AND PERCEPTUAL CONSTRAI NTS I I : WHERE DOES
THE PHONEMI C PRI NCI PLE COME FROM?
I n the preceding sections we have argued that the
values that vow els and consonants ex hibit have
evolved
in
response
to
universal,
non-linguistic
articulatory and perceptual constraints. Let us now see
w hether these constraints could have play ed a role also
in the emergence of the discrete units themselves.
Our discussion w ill be based on a computational
ex periment in which we simulate the phonetic grow th of
a small vocabulary , a minilexicon. The design of the
experiment is closely analogous to the vowel sy stem
simulations.
The
point
of
departure
is
again
the
articulatory model (Lindblom and Sundberg 1971) . We use
it to generate a phonetic space consisting in this case
of a set of "possible syllables". A possible sy llable
is of f ixed duration and is represented as a continuous
trajectory in phonetic space moving f rom a complete
closure of the vocal tract (w hose location ranges f rom
labial through dental, alveolar, retrof lex to palatal,
velar and uvular points of articulation)
to an open
conf iguration. The open conf igurations are those of the
phonetic
- 10 -
previously described cardinal vow el set. Figure 4 gives
an
example
of
such
a
transition
w ith
a
stylized
f requency-time f ormant
pattern at
the top and its
representation
in a three-dimensional f ormant space
below .
The phonetic discriminability of an arbitrary pair
of
trajectories
was
obtained
by
generalizing
the
procedures applied to vowels to the time domain , that
FIGURE 4
TIME
( kHz)
THIRD
FO R M A N T
(kHz)
3.0
3.0
2.5
r--t---l
2.5
2.0
2.0
3.0
--
a
.2
.,
.8
.6
FIRST FORMANT
1.0
SECOND
FORMANT
(kHz)
1.0
(kHz)
is by representing them as a series of discrete spectra
in time, calculating Eqs 1-3 f or each time sample and
then
deriving
the
discriminability
measure
as
the
square root of
the
sum of
the individual
samples
squared (cf Eq 3).
since
the reduction phenomena
and articulatory
simplif ications of on-line speech can in most cases be
explained satisf actorily in elementary biomechanical
terms by representing articulators by damped spring­
mass systems (Lindblom 1983) a rank ordering of every
possible syllable based on articulatory criteria was
also attempted. Such a biomechanical analysis makes us
- 11 -
expect that ex treme positions (ex treme displacements
f rom habitual rest) and ex treme movement rates tend, if
possible,
to
be
avoided.
That
is
a
f act
richly
supported by phonetic observations
(Lindblom 1983) .
There is room f or only a f ew ex amples: Syllables with
labial and dental occlusions receive high ranks. They
have near-neutral points of
closure
(cf
their high
f requency in babbling) whereas a transition with a
retracted tongue tip, a retrof lex closure, represents a
more ex treme departure f rom neutral.
The penalty on
extreme
movement
rates
leads
to
a
favoring
of
homorganic,
assimilated sequences.
Thus a trajectory
consisting of a uvular closure followed by a palatal
(high-f ront) open conf iguration gets a lower score than
say a palatal (velar) closure f ollowed by a palatal
(velar) open conf iguration.
Pursuing
the
analogy
with
the
vowel
system
simulations f urther we investigated "optimal systems"
of syllables by computing
k
�
- I
�
L.
· ·/d· .)2
� minimized
(4)
(a1
J
1J
1
=
j
where dij is the discriminability of an arbitrary
transition pa1r and aij the articulatory cost of that
pair.
In words: Find that set of k syllables that
simultaneously satisf y the goal of being as easy as
possible to say (minimal articblatory �ost) and as easy
as possible to hear (max imal discriminability). In the
present case k=15 and the total inventory was 133. A
procedure of cumulative selection was ad opted.
""
L·l:2.
---
TABLE 3
ba
bu
de
da
du
gc
ga
bi
di
.
gl
+
+
.
gt
gu
Once an initial syllable had been selected Eq 4 was
applied repeatedly until a minilex icon of 15 elements
had been obtained. In all there were 133 runs (=initial
syllables) .
The results were pooled which yielded a
total of
1995
syllables.
The "optimal
system"
was
def ined as the 15 f orms w ith the highest f requency in
this pooled set. The results are presented in Table 3.
- 12 -
The most signif icant aspect of this table emerges
when, examining it row by row and column by column, we
observe
that
trajectory
onsets
and
end -points
are
shared . Row s and columns appear to contain what
linguists w ould call "minimal pairs". Why not a more
diverse set of closures and open conf igurations?
FIGURE 5
Perhaps the easiest way of obtaining an intuitive
grasp of the causes of the combinatorial structure of
the derived inventory is to invoke a simple geometrical
metaphor.
Suppose
we
consid er
tw o
vertical
line
segments and the task of d rawing k lines (trajectories)
f rom anywhere on the lef t segment to anywhere on the
right in such aw ay that the area, A, between any pair
of lines w ill be as large as possible. Mathematically,
i.-I
k
(5 )
(l! Aij)2 ..... minimized
L
L.
1
i-=2
j=
Cf Eqs 3 and 4. Figure 5 show s the result f or k=9. We
see that trajectory onsets and end-points are shared.
The phonetic space of the simulations is clearly much
more complex but our point is that the convergence of
trajectories in the geometrical exercise is analogous
to
the
convergence
of
the
optimized
phonetic
transitions. The combinatorial pattern appears to be a
consequence of achieving an ef f icient packing (read:
optimal d iscrimination) w ithin a bound ed space. It can
be shown that the aij matrix d oes not inf luence the
d egree combinatorial coding in any major w ay but it
--
- 13 -
does play an important role determining the phonetic
value s of the derive d syllables.
Suppose w e presented Table 3 to a linguist as a
sample f rom the vocabulary
of
an unknown language
implying that the f orms have
dif f e rnet meaning but
being very caref ul so as not ot reveal that they had
be e n produce d as unanalyze d w holes.
Undoubtedl y he
would note that the table contains numerous minimal
pairs. Assuming that the le xical items are semantically
distinct and f ollowing standard linguistic methodology
he w ould hypothesize that the language in question uses
three consonant phone mes and f ive vowel phonemes the
minimally contrastive segments being / b d g/ and / i
a
:>
u/ .
t
F IGURE
6
T ONGUE
TIP
JAW
:\
BODY
: \i
...
m
t- --
ALV
r
m
- -
f-�.
t-
TONGUE
I ALVf
t-
f-
... � �:
�
�
- ... � - -- -- -- ---
f- ---------
.
�
A
P
_______
TIP
H
______
: \i y
AL
t-
fm
-
BODY
-
OPEN
-
TARGET
-
NEUTRAL
-
- ----
-
--
t-
----
TARGET
NEUTRAL
NEUTRAL
-
-
JAW
TONGUE
OPEN
TARGET
-
----
0
.
- ---
-
-
HABITU AL
REST
DENOMINATOR
-
-
NEUTR AL
_
_
COMMON
TONGUE
P
-
TARGET
-
-
-----
-- ----
HABITUAL
REST
How do w e resolve this paradox? For remember: The
syllables are by def inition specified as continuous
transitions, as phonetic Ge stalts. Their production is
no
more
segmentally
organize d
than
the
early
vocalizations of the babbling child. Cf top panels of
Figure 6. Neve rtheless,
we transcribe such utterances
using se gments.
Accordingly our use of
segments l.n
- 14 -
Table 3 should be seen as a mere convenience analogous
to the conventional way
of describing the phonetic
behavior of the y oung child.
How ever,
a "phonemic principle" is never theless
implicitly
present in the derived lexicon since the
existence of minimal pairs implies gestural overlap
among motor scores. This is the point w e try to make in
Figure 6 which shows the motor scores of tw o syllables,
call them Idil and I da/ . The jaw and tongue body time
f unctions dif f er whereas the tongue tip curves are
identical. This overlap identifies a common denominator
component. N ote that its contents is in a one-to-one
relation w ith all words linguistically
analy zed as
beginning w ith the phoneme Id/. Were we to examine the
rest of the motor scores of the derived syllables in
the
same
manner
we
would
obtain
analogous
common
denominators f or the remaining "phonemic segments". We
conclude that the simulated lexicon exhibits implicit
phonemic coding.
CONCLUSIONS:
THE ELUSIVE PHONEME REVISITED
We began by describing the phoneme as a pow erf ul
but elusive unit of linguistic structure and by asking
how
such
a
complex
structure
could
have
evolved.
Although our simulations of lexical growth no dOubt
drastically underestimate the complexities of real-lif e
vocabulary
ac q uisition
let
us
nevertheless
brief ly
examine
what
we
might
have
learned
f rom
these
preliminary considerations.
The main f inding appears to be the demonstration
of the beginnings of combinatorial structure in speech­
like signals.
The computational experiments tell us
that
such
combinatorial
patterns
can
arise
f rom
phonetic
constraints
that
f avor
the
selection
of
optimally discriminable stimuli. Recall that we f irst
inferred the presence of
such constraints f rom our
analyses of vow el and consonant systems. In the present
context w e have emphasized the role of
perceptual
aspects but other f actors should also be conside;t:'ed,
f or
instance
learning.
Conceivably ,
articulatory
gestures that a child has alrea dy mastered might make
new syllbles also containing those gestures easier to
acquire than totally
novel
materials.
Work
now
in
progress
indicates
that
such
a
mechanism
w ould
reinf orce the trend towards combinatorial coding even
f urther and extend it to much larger lexica than the
ones considered here.
Examining
the
motor
scores
of
the
derived
syllables w e f ound gestural components that can be said
to be in a one-to-one rel ation w ith phonemic segments.
- 15 -
Note that these subcomponents are not explicit control
units in the production process. They are hidden or
only implicitly present in the holistic motor scores of
the
individual
w ords
of
the
lexicon.
Making
them
explicit
in
the
model,
that is turning them
into
explicit
control
units
is
possible
but
requires
additional processing.
I would like to consider brief ly this notion of
implicit phonemic coding in the context of reading.
Poor readers are reported to lack phonemic aw areness.
They
have
greater
dif f iculties
processing
w ords
phonologically than good readers.
Similarly,
it has
been shown
that
illiterates
score
badly
on
tests
involving phonemic segmentation tasks (Morais, Cluyens,
Alegria
1984) .
Phonemic aw areness does not seem to
develop spontaneously during their language acquisition
(Morais,
Cary,
Alegria and Bertelson 1979) .
A novel
view of the phoneme seems to be emerging out of the
present work,
namely that the elusive nature of the
phoneme - manif est in reading behavior as w ell as in
many other aspects of language use - is related to the
f act that the phoneme has implicit rather than explicit
status in the mental lexica of language users.
Finally
a
f ew
remarks
on
speech
development.
Psycholinguists assume that unless a child, as it were,
"discovers the phoneme" as the building block of the
lexicon it w ill not be ablef6 'deve'lop a vocabulary of
normal large size. In the computational experiments I
have reported the "phoneme" is not discovered. Rather
minimal pairs identif y nodes of "gestural overlap". The
notion of gestural overlap may have several interesting
consequences w orth exploring in f uture research. It may
be an important f actor in f urther learning. Moreover,
since by def inition overlapping motor scores ref er to
shared subcomponents of the motor scores they ought to
take up less memory space than holistic patterns w hich
require
separate
individual
storage.
The
simulated
phoneme
is
accordingly
not
the
cause
of
a
large
vocabulary. It is the result of the vocabulary growth.
It is an emergent consequence of lexical development.
The process is automatic.
It occurs in a completely
self -organizing w ay as it seems to do in the normal
child.
On this view then the reasons why other species
lack phonemic organization may have less to do w ith
their
ability
to
produce
and
receive
signals
ef f iciently*
than
w ith
absence
of
an
urge
to
communicate and f orm large vocabularies.
*
For
(1985)
a
diff erent
view
cf
the
- 16 -
scenario
of
Lieberman
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Bellugi,
Bladon,
R
Crothers,
Fant,
J
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Fant,
G
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V
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L
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E
The
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Ladef oged,
P (1982) . A Course in Phonetics, 2nd ed,
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I
Y
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A M (1988) .
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New
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and Evolution
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P
(1985).
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MA:Harvard
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B (1983)
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The Production
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L indblom,
B
(1986)
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B,
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Sundberg,
J
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A
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B,
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M
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I, Olofsson, A and Wall,
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I (1987).
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Morais,
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Morais,
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2 17-22 9
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M
(1987)
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- 19 -
Synthesis,
Formant Undershoot in Cl ear and citation Form Speech*
Bjorn Lindbl om
Departments of Linguistics
university of Texas at Austin and stockholm University
and
Seung-Jae Moon
Department of Linguistics
University of Texas at Austin
*Paper
on
Distinctive
presented
at
a
conference
Features, stockholm Univerisity, May 27, 1988.
FORMANT UNDERSHOOT IN CLEAR AND CITATION-FORM SPEECH
Bjorn Lindblom and Seung-Jae Moon
TOPIC
This is a progress report on a project aiming at
characterizing
the
acoustic
properties
of
"clear
speech". Is clear speech (henceforth CS) identical to
more neutral forms of speech except for an improved
signal-to-noise
ratio?
Or
does
CS
also
involve
reorganization
of
phonetic
gestures
and
their
associated acoustic patterns?
EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY
Our motivation for studying CS is similar to the
reasoning underlying our previous work on compensatory
articulation and bite-block speech. The approach taken
in that research was to observe the speech system under
rather
extreme
conditions
(abnormal
mandible
positions), assume that the principles governing its
operation under normal and compensatory circumstances
are the same, and try to infer from the compensatory
behavior what those principles are. It appears fair to
say that these bite-block experiments have provided
evidence that vowel targets (Lindblom, Lubker and Gay
1979) and the durational correlates of stress patterns
(Lindblom,
Lubker, Lyberg,
Branderud,
and Holmgren
1987) are specified as sensori-motor, and
ultimately
.
auditory, goals (cf Perkell 1980).
In the case of CS the question arises whether, in
order to become more intelligible, talkers tend to make
perceptually important attributes of the signal more
salient? And whether, by using a CS style, they invoke
more extreme acoustic patterns that - in a more direct
way than those of citation-form speech (henceforth CF)
will provide clues to the true nature of the
distinctive features?
ELICITING CLEAR SPEECH
Several experimental methods can be chosen to
address such issues. The ideal type of approach appears
to be an indirect one according to which CS speech
samples are elicited from a subject by the experimental
circumstances rather than by an explicit instruction to
speak more clearly. An example would be speaking under
noisy conditions (Clark, Lubker and Hunnicutt 1987,
Chen, Zue, Picheny, Durlach and Braida 1983, Summers,
Pisoni, Bernacki, Pedlow and Stokes 1988) or speaking
-
21
-
to a listener with reduced comprehension due to a
hearing loss or a limited command of the language
spoken. The data to be described in the present report
were obtained by means of a direct approach, that is by
explicitly asking subjects to "overarticulate and to
speak as clearly as possible as when communicating with
a non-native listener".
IS CLEAR SPEECH INDEED MORE INTELLIGIBLE?
Presumably when people speak more clearly they do
so in an effort to become more intelligible. There are
a few previous studies of clear speech showing that
people tend indeed to become more intelligible (Dreher
and O 'Neill 1957, Picheny, Durlach and Braida 1985, for
a recent summary see Summers et al 1988).
In the
present work we are interested in correlating the
acoustic
properties
of
the
speech
samples
with
estimates of their intelligibility. We are currently
running
experiments
designed
to
measure
the
intelligibility of the CF and CS recorded for our
subjects as a function of a systematically varied
signal-to-noise-ratio. Are the tokens that are intended
to be CS samples indeed more intelligible? What are
their acoustic properties? In the present report we
shall focus on some preliminary findings from these
acoustic analyses. The intelligibility tests will be
the subject of a future report.
SPEECH SAMPLES
Lindblom
(1963)
examples of so-called
In that article it was
demonstrated that vowel formant frequencies can be
considerably displaced from hypothetical target values
depending on the duration of the vowel and the identity
of the surrounding consonants. Our present aim is to
compare CF and CS speech in terms of that phenomenon.
Research
reported
since
Lindblom
(1963)
has
demonstrated that the undershoot model is too simple.
It has been shown that speakers are free to vary the
degree of undershoot somewhat independently of vowel
duration.
In fast speech articulatory and acoustic
goals can be attained despite short vowel durations
(Engstrand 1988, Gay 1978, Kuehn and Moll 1976). In
Nord (1986) we find evidence indicating that reductions
can occur in spite of sufficient duration.
In designing a speech sample we set up the
following conditions:
duration-dependent
contains
undershoot.
-
22 -
(i) The vowels and their cons onantal environments
s hould be chos en s o as to maximize large 'locus ­
to-target' d is tances ;
(ii)
The tes t vowels s hould carry lexical main
s tres s ;
(iii)
Vowel
d uration
s hould
be
s y s tematically
varied over a s ufficiently large range.
The
firs t
condition
was
achieved
by
choos ing
Englis h word s in which
(a)
front vowels
occur in a
labial-velar environment,
(b)
back vowels occur in a
palatal
context
and
(c)
open
vowels
occur
between
cons onants with s trict d emand s on a high jaw pos ition
and
critical
cons triction
d imens ions ,
s uch
as
ls i
(Keating, Lindblom, Lubker and Kreiman in preparation) .
The s econd and third requirements were met by making
us e of the s o-called 'word-length effect' manifested in
e.g. s peed, s peed y, s peedily in which the d uration of
the
firs t,
main-s tres sed
vowel
s hortens
as
more
unstres s ed s y llables are ad d ed to the word . Examples of
tes t words
containing front vowels in a Iw II frame
are given in the table below.
wheel
will
well
wail
wheeling
willing
welling
wailing
Wheelingham
Willingham
Wellingby
Wailingby
Word s of this ty pe were read by five male speakers
of American Englis h with normal s peech and hearing and
with dialects
approaching General American
English.
Each s ubject was first as ked to produce each word in
is olation reading from randomized lists at comfortable
vocal
efforts
and
speaking
tempos.
No
further
ins tructions
were
given
for
these
s amples
that
repres ent citation forms or CF-utterances. The lists
contained five repetitions of each item.
A s econd s et was then recorded in which similar
lis ts were us ed but in which the s ubjects were asked to
overarticulate and to s peak as clearly as possible as
when
communicating
with
a
non-native
listener.
The
lis ts contained at leas t five repetitions of each item.
Finally the s ubjects read the same test words embedded
in carrier phrases: "It's X not y" and "Not x but y" .
They were asked to overarticulate the items occurring
in the pos itions of the upper-case letters. This list
contains
at least three
repetitions of each paired
items.
We
refer
to
these
two
sets
as
the
non­
contrastive and contrastive CS lists respectively.
For each s ubject we also obtained five repetitions
of each vowel in a Ih-dl frame. The vowels in this
context will be labeled null-context tokens (NC).
-
23
-
RESULTS
A more complete presentation of the results of the
present experiments is in preparation. We will here
concentrate on the formant patterns of the front vowels
in labio-velar environments. The measurements are all
from the same speaker.
Figure
1
shows
the
second
formant
frequency
plotted against vowel duration for the vowels [i, t. , E ,
et ]
in a /w 1/ environment.
CF
measurements
are
indicated by dots, CS results by open squares. There
are fifteen data points for each condition and speaking
style (5 repetitions times three word lengths). The
arrows on the left side of each rectangle represent the
F2-value of the vowel in the /h-d/ null context and the
F2-llocus" at the point of maximum constriction for
/w/.
Vowel duration in the /w 1/ environment was
determined by choosing an arbitrary value of F2, 12 00
Hz, and taking the points in time when F2 crosses this
value as the vowel segment boundaries.
The diagrams show a clear duration-dependence for
all four vowels.
As the vowels get shorter F2 is
shifted more and more away from its nUll-context value
towards its position in /w/. This undershoot effect is
clearly present in CF as well as CS speech. However,
the CF and CS data points seem to form separate
clusters.
In Lindblom (1963) undershoot was described in
terms of exponential curves that made the degree of
formant undershoot dependent on the 'locus'-pattern of
the adjacent consonant and the duration of the vowel.
The significance of this curve-fitting procedure was
that since the asymptotes of the F1 and F2 curves
derived for a given vowel were independent of consonant
context they could therefore be regarded as constant
attributes of that vowel. It was argued that, in spite
of the all the variability associated with formant
undershoot, a given vowel could be described in terms
of
a
unique
and
invariant
attribute:
a
context­
independent underlying articulatory and acoustic target
that the talker aimed at but failed to attain under
certain conditions.
Figure 2 shows the analogous data on the third
formant frequency as a function of vowel duration.
Again the CF measurements are indicated by dots, and CS
results by open squares. These diagrams show the same
trends as Figure 1: There are clear undershoot effects
whose magnitude is related to vowel duration,
the
locus-target distance and to the speaking style.
We tentatively conclude that the data of Figures 1
and 2 are not compatible with the simple undershoot
model since, for both F2 and F3 of each of the four
vowels, we would need to fit two separate exponentials,
one for the CF's and one for the CS. We are forced to
-
24
-
observe that (a) it is not the case that there is a
single asymptote associated with the formant pattern of
each vowel and that (b) it is therfore not possible to
infer a unique invariant underlying target for each
vowel.
In Figure 3 formant frequency information on the
same subset of data as shown in Figure 1 is presented
in the form of F1/F2 charts. The average of at least
five repetitions of the vowel in the /h-d/ environment
is indicated by a large solid dot in each panel. The
averages of a minimum of five CS renderings of the
mono-, bi- and trisyllabic words are plotted as open
squares and small dots represent the corresponding CF
samples. Note that the CS measurements are closer to
the null-context data points in all cases.
This observation is also brought out clearly by
comparing the results for /h-d/ environments with those
for the trisyllabic words, that is with the situation
in which the shortest vowel durations, and thus the
greatest amount of undershoot,
would be expected.
Figure 4 presents that comparison for average F1 and F2
from the stressed vowels of Wheelingham, Willingham,
Wellingby.
Null
context
and
CS
samples
are
unquestionably
more
peripheral
than
the
CF
measurements. In the terminology of Koopmans-van Beinum
(1980) intervocalic acoustic contrast seems to be
reduced in CF vowels as compared with NC and CS tokens.
Note the tendency for the F1 values for CS to be
somewhat higher than in the other conditions. This
might conceivably be due to the loudness increase that
was in general associated with the CS tokens. The more
peripheral locations of the CS match well the results
of Chen (1980) and of Lindblom and Lindgren (1985).
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
These preliminary findings from a single speaker
suggest that when lexical stress is held constant but
vowel duration is varied by means of the word-length
effect formant undershoot is observed in American
English front vowels embedded in /w 1/ contexts. In the
present
case
undershoot
cannot
be
attributed
to
variations in stress but is duration-dependent. Also
the degree of undershoot varies with speaking style.
As
mentioned
above
the
variables
determining
undershoot have been examined by several investigators
(Kuehn and Moll 1976, Gay 1978, Nord 1986, Engstrand
1988, Flege 1988). These studies clearly show that a
simple duration-dependence does not give a satisfactory
account of the facts gathered so far. The present
findings
complicate
the
situation
further
in
demonstrating a style-dependence.
-
27
-
•
.
o
NULL CONTEXT: /h_d/
CITATION FORM
CLEAR
SPEECH
2 .5 ,------,
-
N
J:
.:.
2.0
............... .............................
. . . . . ... .................................. . . . . . . . . ............... ..... . . . .. . . . .
c
z
o
u
W 1 0 ....................................................................................... ....................................
CI) '
0 .5
.
L----'_---L_--1.._--'-_---L._---L-_---.J
o
0. 1
0. 3
0. 2
0.4
FIRST FORMANT
0.5
0.6
0.7
(kHz)
FIG 4
-
29
-
One factor which phoneticians have so far not
really been able to control in their laboratory studies
of speech production is the dimension of over- and
underarticulation. While instances of "hyperspeech" and
"hypospeech"
are
readily
observed
informally
in
everyday situations this aspect is very difficult to
manipulate
experimentally.
When
we
record
speech
samples for our experiments we ignore the degree of
reduction or elaboration that a given speaker may use perhaps because we tacitly hope that there is some
"default mode" of pronunciation which every subject
will adopt and which will make data from different
talkers comparable. It is tempting to speculate that it
may be this uncontrolled hyper-hypo dimension that
might account some of the variability observed in vowel
reduction studies. Is there a continuum of over- and
underarticulation? If so, how do we determine where
along this continuum a piece of recorded speech happens
to
be
located?
These
are
questions
for
further
research. Our hope is that the present research on
clear speech might shed some light on these issues. **
Although the results shown here are limited to a
single speaker it appears evident that clear speech is
not merely equal to more neutral speech with a better
signal-to-noise-ratio. It does involve reorganization
of phonetic gestures. That such a conclusion may be
correct is supported by evidence in the literature. For
instance,
Picheny,
Durlach
and
Braida
(1986)
and
Uchanski,
Durlach
and
Braida
(1987)
present
data
indicating that CS does indeed involve reorganization
which can in fact be rather extensive.
Assuming
that
speaking
imposes
sUbstantial
modifications of citation-form speech patterns we are
led to ask: Why should there be such a thing as clear
speech? Why do talkers bother to make CS adjustments?
Is it - as advocates of the Motor Theory of Speech
Perception would no doubt argue - because, in so doing,
they facilitate the listener 's access to the " distal
objects of speech perception" , that is the phonetic
gestures?
Or is it because they would thereby make
acoustically stable and salient
properties
of the
signal easier to identify (cf the Quantal Theory of
Speech
as
presented
in
Stevens
(1989» .
A
third
possibility is in line with TAD, the Theory of Adaptive
Dispersion (Lindblom and Engstrand 1989) and is based
on the assumption that the existence and very nature of
clear speech can be understood as a speaker adaptation
to the needs of the communicative situation. According
** The present project is closely related to the
research on " Uttalstransformer" (speech transforms) now
in progress at the Phonetics Laboratory of Stockholm
University
and
conducted
by
Engstrand,
Krull
and
Lindgren.
- 30
-
to this theory the purpose of clear speech is to
enhance
the
acoustic contrast
among
phonemes
(cf
Koopmans-van Beinum 1980). It is further assumed that
(i) speakers are capable of controlling the degree of
acoustic contrast among phonemes and that (ii) the very
existence and nature of clear speech tells an indirect
story about the organization of perceptual processing:
The argument is that clear speech makes sense only if
we suppose that lexical access is based on - neither
recovering phonetic gestures nor invariant acoustic
properties
but
signal
information
that
is
sufficiently contrastive. On this view the recognition
of
segments
involves
the
computation
of
(dis)similarities between stored patterns and signal­
derived features.
TAD suggests that speaking more
clearly is intended to make lexical access converge
more unambiguously on unique candidates.
Much more data is needed before such questions can
be definitively answered but it already seems evident
that clear speech offers opportunities to develop new
paradigms
and
vantage
points
from
which
current
theories can be tested.
REFERENCES
F
Chen,
Chen,
R
(1980):
" Acoustic
Characteristics
and
Intelligibility of Clear and Conversational
Speech at the Segmental Level" ,
Master's
Thesis, M I T, Cambridge, Mass.
F R, Zue, V W, Picheny, M A, Durlach, N I and
Braida
L
D
(1983):
" Speaking
Clearly:
Acoustic Characteristics and Intelligibility
of stop Consonants" , 1-8 in Working Papers
II, Speech Communication Group, M I T.
Clark J E,
Lubker, J F and Hunnicutt, S (1987): " Some
Preliminary Evidence for Phonetic Adjustment
Strategies in communication Difficulty" , in
Language Topics, vol 2, John Benjamins.
Engstrand, O (1988): " Articulatory Correlates of Stress
and Speaking Rate in Swedish VCV utterances" ,
J Acoust Soc Am 83 (5): 1863-1875 .
Flege,
Gay,
J E (1988): " Effects of Speaking Rate on Tongue
position and Velocity of Movement" , J Acoust
Soc Am 84 (3) :901-9 16.
T
" Effect of Speaking Rate
(1978):
Movements" ,
Formant
J
Acoust
63 (1) :223-230.
- 31
-
on Vowel
Soc
Am
Keating,
P, Lindblom, B, Lubker, J and Kreiman J (in
prep): "Jaw position in English and Swedish
VCVs", ms. , Department of Linguistics, UCLA.
Koopmans-van
Beinum,
Reduction,
Kuehn,
F
J
(1980):
Vowel
contrast
Amsterdam: Academische Pers B V.
D P and Moll, K L (1976): "A Cineradiographic
Study of VC and CV Articulatory Velocities",
J of Phon 4 :303-320.
Liberman
A M and Mattingly I
Theory
Speech
of
cognition 21:1-36.
Lindblom,
B
(1963):
Reduction",
On
Vowel
Department
Stockholm.
G (1985): "The Motor
Perception
Revised",
"Spectrographic Study of Vowel
J Acoust Soc Am 35:1773-1781 and
Reduction,
technical
report,
of
Speech
Communication,
RIT,
Lindblom
B,
Lubker J and Gay T
(1979): " Formant
Frequencies of Some Fixed-Mandible Vowels and
a
Model
of
Speech
Motor
Programming
by
Predictive Simulation" ,
J of Phonetics 7,
147-161.
Lindblom
B and Lindgren R (1985):
"Speaker-Listener
Interaction and Phonetic Variation" , 77-85 in
Experiments in Speech Processes, Perilus IV,
Department
of
Linguistics,
stockholm
University.
Lindblom
B,
Lubker J,
Lyberg
B,
Branderud P and
Holmgren K (1987): "The Concept of Target and
Speech Timing" , 161-182 in: Channon, R and
Shockey, L (eds): In Honor of Ilse Lehiste,
Foris: Dordrecht, Holland.
Lindblom
B and Engstrand 0 (1989): "In What Sense is
Speech Quantal? " , commentary on focus paper
by K N Stevens to appear in theme issue J of
Phonetics.
Nord,
L
Perkell,
(1986): " Acoustic studies of Vowel Reduction in
Swedish" ,
STL-QPSR 4/1986,
19-36
(Dept of
Speech Communication, RIT, Stockholm).
J
(1980):
" Phonetic
Features
and
the
Physiology of Speech Production" , 337-372 in
Butterworth
(ed) : Language Production
(Vol
1), London :Academic Press.
- 32 -
Picheny,
M A, Durlach, N I and Braida, L D (1985):
"Speaking Clearly for the Hard of Hearing I:
Intelligibility Differences Between Clear and
Conversational Speech", J Speech and Hearing
Res, 28, 96-103.
Picheny,
M A, Durlach, N I and Braida, L D (1986):
"Speaking Clearly for the Hard of Hearing II:
Acoustic
Characteristics
of
Clear
and
Conversational Speech", J Speech and Hearing
Res, 29 (4), 434-4 4 6.
Schulman,
Stevens,
R (forthcoming):
Loud and Normal
Acoust Soc Am.
"Articulatory Dynamics of
Speech",
submitted to J
K N (1968): "Acoustic Correlates of Place of
Articulation
for
stop
and
Fricative
Consonants", QPR 89, RLE, MIT, 199-2 05.
Stevens, K N (1989): "On the Quantal Nature of Speech",
to appear in theme issue of J of Phonetics.
Summers,
Uchanski,
W V, Pisoni, D B, Bernacki, R H, Pedlow, R I
and Stokes, M A (1988): "Effects of Noise on
Speech Production:
Acoustic and Perceptual
Analyses", J Acoust Soc Am 84 (3): 917-92 8.
R M, Durlach, N I and Braida, L D (1987)
"Clear Speech" paper presented as part of a
seminar on "Hearing-Aid Processed Speech" at
the
American
Speech-Language-Hearing
Association
Convention
in
New
Orleans,
November 1987.
- 33
-
ON THE SYSTEMATICITY OF PHONETIC VARIATION IN SPONTANEOUS SPEECH
Ol le Engstrand & Diana Krul l
1
Introduction
Even though the phonetic correlates of a given linguistic unit
can vary drastical l y in different speech situations, a
l ot of
phonetic variation
seems to
be fairly
regular. For example,
Lindbl om (1963) was
abl e
to
predict
spectral
variation in
Swedish
vowel s
given
information
about their durations and
adjacent consonant l oci; vowel durations, in
turn, are partly
predictabl e
in
terms
of
phonol ogical
l ength,
stress, and
position in the utterance (Lindbl om, Lyberg
& Holmgren, 1981;
Engstrand, 1988); and these factors, final l y, partl y depend on
the morphological and syntactic
specification
of
the utter­
ance.
Observations of this kind are important in view of the reason­
abl e assumption that speech perception depends
on both direct
impl icit knowledge of
on an
information and
signal property
various systematic interactions between
acoustic-phonetic and
grammatical
dimensions
(Lindbl om,
1987) .
Mainly,
however,
phonetic systematicity has been
observed
in
speech elicited
and produced
under highl y
constrained laboratory conditions.
There
are,
of
course,
several
good
reasons
for
using a
strictly controlled experimental design, permitting systematic
manipul ation of a smal l set of variabl es. Also, there is
no £
to assume
that phonetic
variation in elicited
priori reason
speech is principall y
different
from
phonetic
variation in
non-elicited speech.
There is reason to assume, however, that
the systematicity of
the
variation
is
l ess
transparent in
spontaneous speech than in speech produced under the cl assical
experimental f ormat. The extent
to which
the phonetic varia­
tion in spontaneous speech can be disentangled in terms of its
physical
and
l inguistic
determinants
should
therefore
be
carefully examined.
In this
paper, we
report some
data bearing on the foll owing
hypotheses relating to the systematicity of phonetic variation
in spontaneous speech. These hypotheses are:
1)
There
are
systematic
correl ations
between duration and
spectral features of speech segments. In particul ar,
a) durational changes will affect the
formant pattern
in the
front
non-low
vowel s
Iii
and
lei
such
that
the formant
frequency deflection from the
onset or
offset values related
to a
certain consonantal
environment decreases as a function
of the duration of the vocalic segment;
b) the duration of a sequence IVrVI wil l affect the
third and
fourth
formants
associated
with
Irl
such that the formant
frequency deflection
from values
related to
the vowel onset
decreases as a function of the duration of the IVrVI segment.
2) Changes
in the
grammatical function
of a certain phoneme
sequence are accompanied by phonetic changes. More specifical­
l y, when a certain sequence makes up either a preposition or a
-
34 -
prefix,
the
alternation
between
these
functions
associated w ith spectral or durational effects.
will
be
For the remainde r
of
this
report,
we
first
describe what
experimental measures
are currently being taken to test these
and
related
hypotheses
(section
2).
We
then
report
the
relevant data
that have
been collected
to date (section 3) .
Finally, we discuss
the
measurement
results
and
draw some
tentative conclusions (section 4) .
2
Method
We used for this experiment approximately one hour of recorded
speech produced by one
male native
speaker of
the Stockholm
dialect
of
Swedish
(subj.
JS).
The
greater
part
of the
recording is a lively
monologue supported
by brief questions
and comments.
There are
three main topics in this monologue:
a) about the subject's profession
and
daily
work;
b) about
travelling
by
train
in
Europe;
and c) about the political
situation
in
a
European
country
that
the
subject
knows
relatively well. In addition, the subject related the contents
of a short story that he had been
asked to
read a
few weeks
earlier.
The
recording
was
carried
out
in
a sound-proof
recording room with a Revox
PR/99
tape -recorder
at
a tape­
speed
of
19
cm/s
with the microphone (Sennheiser 211/U) at
approximate ly 25 cm from the subject's mouth.
After the recording, a manuscript of the whole speech material
was pre pared. The frequency of occurrence of words and phrases
was determined1, and frequently occurring words and phrases of
interest
were
noted.
Preliminary
analysis of the resulting
material then provided the
basis from
which the
above hypo­
theses
were
generated.
The
preliminary
analysis procedure
involved digitizing the utterance candidates using
an Eclipse
S/200
computer
system.
The
re sulting
sample data file was
edited such that all examples
of
a
certain
word
or phrase
could be
listened to
in a
sequence. The
material was tran­
and computer
spectrograms were printed
scribed phonetically,
out for inspection.
The
single
words
selected
for the final analysis were. for
hypothesis 1a:
tid /tid/
'time', vis
/vis/ 'manner', 'way ';
also in visum 'visa' and visa 'show'; vet /vet/ 'know (s)', and
se n /sEn/, which is a variant of sedan
'then '; for hypothesis
lb: bara /bara/ 'only'; and for hypothesis 2: for /f0r/, which
means 'for' when use d as a preposition. When
pre fixed to verb
and
noun
stems,
it
has
a
function roughly similar to its
English equivalent, e. g. in forbjuda 'forbid'. In these words,
the Ce ntral Swedish vowels /i/ and /e/ are phonologically long
(or tense ) and display a conside rable
amount of diphthongiza­
tion
in
stressed
position;
/E/
is
short; /a! is long and
slightly rounded in many
speakers '
pronunciation.
The vowe l
/0/ has
an open
major allphone whe n preceding /r/ and supra­
de ntals, the latter being derive d from /r/ plus
dental. It is
long
in
the
pre position
for as pronounced in isolation; in
prepositional phrases, however. it is normally
unstressed and
phonetically
short.
In
derivative s
such
as
forbjuda, the
-
35
-
neutralized. These two situations
is
distinction
long/short
feature' vs.
'for the
can be typified by the pair for draget
fordraget ' the treaty'. A related use occurs in compounds such
has primary
sequence
the
where
as foredraget ' the speech',
main question here is whether the former two uses
stress. The
different in spontaneous
of the sequence for are phonetically
speech.
For the
final measurements,
broadband spectrograms were made
(Kay
Elemetrics
Digital
Sona-Graph/7800,
300
Hz
filter
bandwidth, frequency
range O-S kHz; Sona-Graph Printer/7900) .
The spectrograms were segmented a t major
acoustic discontinu­
ities
and
measured
for
segment
duration. Onset and offset
formant frequencies relating
to
CV
and
VC
boundaries were
measured
at
the
respective
first
and
last
glottal pulse
clearly
within
the
vocalic
segment.
In
addition, formant
frequencies
were
traced
and
measured at turning-points, if
any, otherwise half way
through the
duration of
the vocalic
segment.
Measurements
of
durations
were
performed
to the
nearest S ms relative
to the
marked segment
boundaries, and
formant
frequencies
were
measured
to
the
nearest
10
Hz
relative to the tracing marks.
3
Observations
3. 1
Data and correlations for the front non-low vowels
Mean durations and frequency
measures relating
to the second
and third
formants are
listed in the Appendix, tables A 1-A4.
Our primary concern is now to analyze these
da ta with respect
to
the
relationships
between durations and formant frequen­
cies. Table 1 below shows correlations between vowel durations
and
various
frequency
measures
relating
to the second and
difference
between maximum
third formants: maximum frequency,
frequency and
onset frequency, and difference between maximum
frequency and offset frequency. In order to avoid the possible
influence of
a final
lengthening effect (Lyberg, 1981; Nord,
1986) , the correlations are based only on test items occurring
in non-final position, whereas the data tables in the Appendix
include also the finals. Slightly lower correlations result in
our data
when the calculations include the finals. Effects of
final lengthening in spontaneous speech will
be studied
at a
later s tage in our project.
Table 1.
Correlation between duration and various measures of
the frequency of the second formant. Subj. JS.
Fzmax
F�'? (max-onset)
F�? (max-offset)
F;,�max
F;�< (max-onset)
F:� (max-offset)
D U R A T I 0 N
vis
vet
0. 90
0 73
0. S1
0.7 4
0.61
0.96
0.64
0. 39
0. 38
0.74
0 61
0. 29
tid
0.41
0.39
0.39
0.47
0. S2
0. 61
.
.
-
36
-
sen
-0.22
-0.49
0.36
-0. 18
-0. 61
0.07
way. The trajec­
the following
The data can be summarized in
a formant from onset to offset of a' slowly pronounced
tory of
at a
can lie
(or minimum)
vowel forms a curve whose maximum
axis from its onset and
frequency
the
on
distance
varying
in tid
is F:;�
flat curve
a relatively
offset. An example of
is no appreciable change in
case, there
such a
(Fig.la). In
F2 in
duration.
vowel
changing
the formant trajectory with
vet, on the other hand, forms a large excursion to its maximum
(Fig. ib). In this case,
the
excursion
decreases
with vowel
duration and
there is a good correlation between the duration
of
the
vowel
and
the
difference
in
frequency
between
onset/offset
of
the
forman t
and
its
maximum.
Thus,
the
correlation coefficients
in
Table
1
are
predictable
to a
certain
extent
given
the
range
of
the formant excursions
(r=0.66).
The data showing the
difference
between
maximum
and offset
second formant frequency as a function of duration for /e: / in
the word vet 'know (s) ' are shown in Fig. 2. It should be noted
that a
linear f unction
approximates these data well, whereas
other data of this kind are
generally better
described by an
asymptotic
approximation
(Lindblom,
1963;
Lindblom & Moon,
1988). The reason for this
difference
is
probably
that the
vowel durations measured here, coming from spontaneous speech,
have much
smaller
durations
than
typically
encountered in
citation
forms
and
overarticulated speech (Lindblom & Moon,
1988) . Thus, our phonologically long vowels are on the average
just above 100 ms. The corresponding relationships in Lindblom
& Moon also appear to be roughly linear around this value.
3 .2
Data and correlations for the /VrV/ sequence
Durations and formant frequencies pertaining to
the word bara
are
shown
in
the
Appendix,
table
A5. Table 2 below shows
correlations between durations of
the
/ara/
portion
in the
word bara
and various
measures of the frequency of the third
and fourth formants relating
to the
segment /r/:
minimum F::�;
and F4,
difference between
F::�!; minimum and onset, and between
F.<} minimum and onset.
Table 2. Correlation between duration and
various measures of
the frequency
of the third and fourth formants in bara. Subj.
JS.
Duration
-0.74
-0.71
0. 79
0 85
F::!� min
F.<} min
F;" (min-onset)
F,,:, (min-onset)
.
-
37
-
800
�-�----�
700
/"'\
600
I
N
'-/
IW
(f)
LL
LL
0
x
<I
L:
N
LL
500
400
300
200
0
100
0
0
4
60
80
120
100
140
VOWEL LENGTH
160
180
200
(ms)
Fig. 2. Distance between F2 maximum and of f set (Hz) plotted as a
f unction of vowel duration (ms) f or the word vet 'know(s)' as
pronounced in spontaneous speech. The correlation between the
variables is r-O.96. Subj . JS.
-
39
-
We find significant negative correlations for
F3min and F4min
as we 1 1
as for
F;:l' (min-onset) and
F"" (mean-onset). The 1 atter
relationship
is
illustrated
graphically
in
Fig.
3.
The
correlations for F3 and F4 onset are weak. suggesting that the
onset values are relatively fixed. The correlations between F·;:�
and
F4
are
as
follows:
for
F3min/F4min.
r=0. 71. and for
F3(min-onset)/F4 (min-onset). r=0. 79.
3.3
The sequence /f0r/ as preposition vs.
prefix
The
following
data
are
relevant
to
Hypothesis
2
above.
assuming
phonetic
correlates
of
a shift in the grammatical
function of a sound sequence.
Table
3
shows
mean durations
(ms) and
formant frequencies (Hz) for the vowel /0/ in for in
various
functions.
We
have
included
data
pertaining
to
stressed versions of the same sequence for reference.
Table 3.
Mean durations (ms) and formant frequencies (Hz) for
the vowel
/0/
in
the
morpheme
for
in
various functions.
Subject: JS.
The stars
(*) indicate that differences between
adjacent mean values in
the table
are statistically signifi­
cant at
the 1%
level of significance. Further explanation in
text.
P R E F I X
Dur
Fl
F:;.r
F:::,
F "1
x
s
25
39
4 08
31
1414 132
2 2 26 136
2998 191
---
PREPOSITION
x
n
-----------
21
19
19
19
15
-
-
----
*
1
----
45
479
1297
2 205
3201
s
n
- - 34
18
14
36
132
15
134
15
204
15
-
-
-----
1
*
*
S T R E S S
x
s
-
---------
126
530
1040
216 2
318 2
n
- 43
11
11
33
60
11
57
11
70
10
--
-
-
The
di fference
in
F:!..
F:.�
and F"'I between Pref and Prep are
statistically significant (p<O.Ol).
The
difference
in dura­
tion. F1 and F2 between Prep and Stress are also statistically
significant (p<O. Ol). The formant
data
suggest
a systematic
fronting and
heightening in
the direction "stress">"preposi­
tion">"prefix".
These data can
be
compared
to
similar
data
obtained from
earlier measurements. Those measurements. which were made from
a radio interview with a m ale Swedish politician. show roughly
the same
tendency although
the durational difference between
the "prefix" and "preposition" conditions are more marked. and
the difference
between Fl means is not statistically signifi­
cant at p<O. Ol (see table 4).
-
40
-
GOO
500
0
r-..
I
N
'\../
Z
:L
400
0
-
IW
(f)
z
0
-.:t
LL
300
0
200
0
10 0
0
o
8
o
-100 L-4--L� ---L-�L�---L-�-L�---���---�
300
0
l OO
VOWEL
LENGTH
(ms)
Fig. 3. Distance between F4 onset an d mlnlmum (Hz) plotted as a
function of duration (ms) of the /VrV/ sequence in the word bara
'only' as pronounc ed in spontaneous speech. The correlation
between the variables is r=O.85. Subj. JS.
-
41
-
Table 4.
Mean durations (ms) and formant frequencies (Hz) for
the vowel 101 in for functioning as prefix
vs. preposition in
spontaneous
speech.
The
stars (*) indicate that differences
between adjacent
mean values
in the
table are statistically
significant
at
the
1%
level
of significance. Male Central
Swedish subject (KOF).
1
PREF IX
PREPOSITION
---�---:---�---- ----�----:----�---25
70
19
31
247
38
1
296
576
1509
4
89
20
1 29 2
153
16
Comments
It was assumed in the introductory section of
this paper that
the perception
and understanding
of speech partly depends on
an
implicit
knowledge
of
systematic
interactions
between
various acoustic-phonetic
and grammatical
dimensions. Such a
knowledge would permit
extraction
of
linguistic information
out of the physically variable waveform in spontaneous speech.
Obviously, however,
this implies
that there
really exists a
fair amount
of phonetic systematicity in the first place. The
purpose of this study was therefore
to gain
some preliminary
insight into the nature and extent of such a systematicity. As
a first step, we formulated two limited hypotheses.
The first hypothesis
was
that
durational
changes
would be
related to formant pattern changes in the front non-low vowels
Iii and lei, and in the
sequence IVrV/.
It can
be concluded
now that
some of
our results do show fairly strong relation­
ships which can be interpreted in support of
this hypothesis.
Since, on
the other hand, these data are among the very first
of its kind, we must be particularly careful
in stressing the
limitations and
preliminary nature
of the
results. Thus, we
have observed a very
small number
of utterances
produced by
one single speaker.
It should
also be emphasized that what we have found here are
merely statistical relationships which
themselves
in
do not
say
much
about
the
phonetic
control
strategy in terms of
causally
dependent
and
independent
variables.
There
are
various
reasonable
assumptions
that
can be made concerning
this.
Everyday
experience
suggests
that
spontaneous
speech
is
frequently fast
and reduced. A good question to ask, then, is
to what extent one of
these
properties
is
governed
by the
other;
i. e. ,
does
rate
cause reduction or vice versa? Some
current
terminology
such
as
"allegro"
vs.
"lento", "fast
speech",
and
the
like
(Dressler,
1972; Dalby, 1984) would
-
42
-
appear to imply the
primacy of
the rate
parameter. Phonetic
reduction would then, perhaps for physiological and mechanical
reasons, result fr om small durations due to increas ed speaking
rate. A
rapid sequence
of incompatible
m otor commands to an
inert articulator w ould act to
reduce
the
amplitude
of its
movement. This ,
of course, is the philosophy underlying Lind­
blom's early
vowel reduction
model (Lindblom,
1963) . On the
other hand, if the reduction parameter were primary, articula­
tory movements would be reduced in the first
place and, given
an
unaltered
movement
velocity,
overall rate variation and
s egment shortening would result
from variations
in reduction
(Barry, 1984).
As a third poss ibility, it is conceivable that
duration and reduction
are
jointly
affected
by
some third
factor, e. g. degree of stress.
Whereas
all
these
mechanisms
appear
reasonable,
everyday
experience also suggests that
rate and
reduction may
be, at
least
partially,
independent.
We
note
in
particular that
s peech can be slow and reduced as well as fas t
and elaborated
(e.g. Zwicky,
1972; Shockey, 1973; Lindblom, 198 3 ; Engstrand,
1988;
Lindblom
&
Moon,
1988).
For
example,
s h ort
vowel
durations
elicited
by
a
high
speech rate need n ot lead to
formant undershoot (Engstrand, 1988),
and long
durations due
to final
lengthening are
compatible with considerable reduc­
tion (Nord, 1986). The recent data
of Lindblom
& Moon (1988)
further
corroborate
these
observations.
They
find
that
durations and formant frequencies in vowels vary independently
when
different
speech
styles are experimentally controlled.
Our present data have
not yet
given evidence
for such style
effects in
spontaneous speech.
But as
we pointed out above,
this study
is a
preliminary one.
In order
to approach some
more
general
c onclusions,
we
are currently building up and
analysing a more complete data base.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the
Swedish National Board
The
Bank
of Sweden
for
Technical
Development
(STUF)
and
Tercentenary Foundation (RJ) .
-
43 -
Footnote
l·Program written by Rolf Lindgren.
References
Barry,
M.C.
1984.
Connected speech: processes,
models.
Cambridge
Papers
in
Phonetics
and
Linguistics, 3, 1-16.
Dalby,
J.
M.
1984.
Phonetic
American
English.
Bloomington,
Linguistics Club.
structure
Indiana:
motivations,
Experimental
of
fast speech in
Indiana University
Dressler,
W.
1972.
Allegroregeln rechtfertigen Lentoregeln.
Sekundare Phoneme
des Bretonischen.
Innsbrucker Beitrage zur
Sprachwissenschaft, 9.
Engstrand,
O.
1988.
Articulatory
correlates
of stress and
speaking rate in Swedish VCV utterances. JASA 83, 1863-1875.
Lindblom, B. 1963.
JASA 35, 1773-1781.
Spectrographic study
Lindblom,
B.
1983.
Economy
of
speech
MacNeilage (ed.): The Production of Speech.
Verlag, pp. 217-245.
of vowel reduction.
gestures.
New York:
In:
P.
Springer
Lindblom, B. 1987. Adaptive variability and absolute constancy
in speech
signals:
two
themes
in
the
quest
for phonetic
invariance.
Proc.
XIth
ICPhS,
Tallinn, Estonia, Aug. 1987,
Vol. 3, pp. 9-18.
Lindblom,
B.,
B.
Lyberg
&
K.
patterns
of
Swedish
phonology:
memory
processes?
Bloomington,
Linguistics Club.
Holmgren.
1981. Durational
Do
they reflect short-term
Indiana:
Indiana University
Lindblom, B.
& S.-J.
Moon. 1988. Formant undershoot in clear
and citation form speech. PERILUS 8 (this issue).
Lyberg, B. 1981. Temporal properties of
spoken Swedish. Mono­
graphs
from
the
Institute
of
Linguistics,
University
of
Stockholm (MILUS), 6.
Nord, L. 1986. Acoustic studies of vowel reduction in Swedish.
STL-QPSR 4/1986, 19-36. Department of Speech Communication and
Music Acoustics, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm.
Shockey, L.
1973.
Phonetic
and
phonological
properties of
connected
speech.
Ohio
State Working Papers in Linguistics,
17.
Columbus,
Ohio:
Ohio
State
University,
Department of
Linguistic.
Zwicky,
A.
1972.
On
casual
speech.
Papers
from
the 8th
Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society. Chicago: CLS.
-
44 -
APPENDIX:
Measurement data,
tables A1-A5
Table A1. Data pertaining to li:1 in the word tid 'time': Mean
values f or F2 and
durations (ms);
onset, maximum
and offset
maximum
and
onset, and
F::!�; differences between
F�;,�
and
F:"
between F:;;? and F�:� maximum and offset (Hz); n=17. Subj. JS.
Std.dev.
Mean
Duration
F::;,� max
F:;;.? onset
F:;? offset
F:;;.? (max-onset)
F:;.? (max-offset)
F;" max
F·:,� onset
F�:� of f set
F3 (max-onset)
F�:� (max-offset)
31
70
59
91
73
94
99
77
105
73
81
108
1772
1662
1627
109
145
2759
2615
2578
146
186
Table
A2.
Data
pertaining
to
li:1
in the word vis 'way',
'manner':
Mean
durations
(ms);
onset,
maximum
and offset
values for
F2 and
F3; differences
between F2 and F3 maximum
and onset, and between F:;?
and
F::�;
maximum
and
offset (Hz);
n=20. Subj. JS.
Mean
Duration
F:;.� max
Fz onset
Fz offset
F�:r (max-onset)
F::;.� (max-offset)
F·", max
F::.� onset
F::� offset
F�� (max-onset)
F3 (max-offset)
Std.dev.
117
1786
1492
1753
291
37
2642
2270
2553
473
89
-
26
64
95
50
109
50
114
59
94
89
70
45
-
Table A3.
Data pertaining
to /e:/ in the word vet 'know (s)':
Mean durations (ms); onset, maximum and
offset values
for F::.2
and Fo:;,;
differences between
F:;;,� and F:::r. maximum and onset, and
between F:;? and F:::.t maximum and offset (Hz); n=19. Subj. JS.
Duration
F:;;,� max
F::;:, onset
F:;;.� offset
F:;;.� (max-onset)
F:? (max-offset)
F
max
F
onset
F'.'!:< offset
F�· (max-onset)
F·.::.\ (max-offset)
.. ,·
-.'
..
�
-'
-'
Mean
Std. dev.
116
1692
1494
1365
198
316
2420
2211
2524
218
-10 8
40
220
124
68
136
213
79
43
54
83
67
Table A4. Data pertaining to
/e/
in
the
word
sen (=sedan)
'then': Mean
durations (ms); onset, maximum and off set values
for F�2 and Fo:;r.;
differences
between
F:;;,�
and
F:��
maximum and
onset, and
between F:.?
and F,'!!:
maximum and offset (Hz); n=11.
Subj. JS.
Mean
Duration
Fz max
F:;-t onset
Fz offset
F:;;.? (max-onset)
F:;;.� (max-offse:t)
F';!:< max
F::!.t onset
F::!.t offset
F3 (max-onset)
F� (max-offset)
-'
Std.dev.
69
1417
1446
1315
-29
93
2470
2491
2466
-45
4
-
46
22
75
67
75
70
96
67
40
95
45
53
-
Table A5. Data pertaining to various aspects of
the word bara
/ba: ra/
'only':
Mean
durations
of the /VrV/ sequence (ms);
onset and minimum F::�; and F��. pertaining to /r/, and differences
between F::�
and F4. minimum and onset, respectively (Hz). Subj.
JS.
Mean
Duration
F::;:t. min
F4 min
F:!.� onset
F,,:, onset
F·.::< (min-onset)
F ... (min-onset)
Std. dev.
122
2154
3091
2150
3209
36
139
-
47
57
163
217
79
108
188
159
-
n
21
20
19
17
16
17
16
DISCONTINUOUS VAR IATION IN SPONTANEOUS SPEECH
Olle Engstrand & Diana Krull
1
Introduction
In spontaneous
speech, words and phrases are frequently heard
to be strongly reduced in relation to their alleged phonologi­
cal
base
forms.
In
certain
cases, segments, sy llables and
other units seem to lack acoustic traces in
the speech signal
altogether. It
might be
assumed that such reduced word forms
are frequently phonologized in
the
sense
that
the implicit
segments do not form part of the speaker's utterance plan, and
that they are consequently unrepresented at all levels
of the
motor execution
of speech. Alternation between phonologically
elaborated and
reduced forms
entails phonetic discontinuity;
i. e.,
for
a
given
phonetic property , there is no continuum
along which the property is reduced
or elaborated.
For exam­
ple, in the alternative word forms n�gonting and n�nting (both
meaning 'something'), the first form contains
a velar gesture
(corresponding to the segment /g/), whereas the second form is
assumed to bear no trace of the segment /g/.
A criterion for determining whether two
phonetically distinct
word forms
are also
phonologically distinct in this sense is
that a weak form can be phonetically elaborated without becom­
ing identical
with or
even approaching
the strong form. For
example, even
an emphatic
pronunciation of
n�nting is quite
common and
acceptable even
if it
completely lacks a gesture
for /g/.
Does phonetic discontinuity
entail
phonological alternation?
If the
answer to
this question
is affirmative, all phonetic
variants of a common
phonological
base
must
be continuous;
i. e. , the
amplitude of a certain phonetic gesture correspond­
ing to an underly ing segment display s
a continuous transition
between levels
of reduction
or elaboration. If the answer is
negative, i.e. . if phonetic
discontinuity is
compatible with
phonological identity .
then there
appear to
be two distinct
sources of discontinuous variation, one which
is phonological
and one
which is
something else.
For the
remainder of this
paper, we attempt to exemplify and discuss an instance of this
second
source
of
discontinuous
variation
in
spontaneous
speech.
Continuous and discontinuous
phonetic
variation
tend
to be
more or
less common in different parts of the word and phrase
vocabulary . An apparent discontinuous
variation is frequently
observed in
the subset
of the
Swedish vocabulary containing
grammatically functional morphemes. words and phrases. In such
cases, moreover,
it frequently
seems as
if speakers tend to
adhere to a relatively
small
set
of
discontinuous realiza­
tions.
Fig.
1
provides
an
graphical
example. The figure display s
spectrogram tracings of the first and second formants pertain­
ing to
all occurrences
of the grammatical conjunction s� att
-
48
-
Iso attl
(so that,
such that) as pronounced in a spontaneous
speech situation by
a
male
Stockholmer;
see
Engstrand and
Krull (1988)
for details. There are two basic, quite distinct
sets of curves pertaining to one reduced (left
three columns)
and one
elaborated (rightmost column) sty le of pronunciation.
The reduced version sounds
much
like
the
word
satt Isattl
( sat I )
I
•
kHz
2
-
--...
-
--
-
-
.....
....-=-
'C7
-----..
0
2
-
�
-
-
-
-
-.....
-
",,--
-
-
-
--...
�
�
-
-
0
""\.
c=
� -
2
-
0
::::.
-�
--
2
'"
_"--Z- ..
,.,,-...
0
Fig. 1.
Tracings of
the first and second formants from broad
band spectrograms
illustrating
two
basic
varieties
of the
pronunciation of
the grammatical conjunction sa att. The left
three columns represent a
reduced level
of pronunciation and
the rightmost column represents an elaborated level. Subj. JS.
Do strongly reduced forms such as these instances of sa att as
a rule contain any kind of
acoustic
traces
of
each
of the
segments
constituting
the
corresponding
phonological
base
forms? Mere listening and
transcribing
is
probably insuffi­
cient to
answer this
question; when a clear segment realiza­
tion is heard in
the
natural
speech
situation,
the effect
frequently
seems
illusory
when
listened
for in an excized
portion of the speech flow. Careful measurements are therefore
-
49
-
necessary .
The
remainder
of
this
paper will focus on this
particular example in terms of a set of measurements and their
subsequent perceptual evaluation.
2
Experiments
2.1
Recording and measurements
We
used
for
this
experiment
approximately half an hour of
recorded speech produced
by
a
male
native
speaker
of the
Stockholm dialect
of Swedish
(subj. JS). The greater part of
the recording is a lively monologue
supported by
brief ques­
tions and
comments from one of the experimenters. The subject
and the recording procedures are described
in more
detail in
Engstrand and Krull (1988).
Out of
the material,
we selected
and spectrographed (1) all
instances of the g rammatical
conjunction
sA
att
(so that) ,
where £ stands for the phonologically long (tense) back round­
ed vowel 10/, and £ stands for the
phonologically short (lax)
open fronted
vowel la/;
(2) all
sequences saC, where ICI is
any non-nasal consonant; and (3) all
preconsonantal instances
of the word sA (so).
Onset and
nuclear (mid
vowel) frequencies
of the first four
formants
(F.t-F4)
were
identified
and
measured
for
all
F::, and
F4 were practica11 y
occurrences of
these utterances.
identical and are not shown here. Measurement data
for F1 and
F2 as well as durations are given in Table 1.
Onset and
Table 1.
nuclear frequencies
(Hz) and durations
for the vocalic segments in sA att, saC and sA. Subj. JS.
NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
PHRASE
sA att
sA att
sA att
sA att
ONINUC
on
on
nuc
nuc
FORMANT
F1
F2
F1
F2
N
12
12
12
12
MEAN
470
1332
553
1319
S. D.
49
57
42
62
saC
saC
saC
saC
on
on
nuc
nuc
F1
F2
F1
F2
16
16
13
13
5 16
1348
596
132 5
78
70
85
83
sA
sA
sA
sA
on
on
nuc
nuc
F1
F2
F1
F2
10
10
9
9
42 0
1395
408
137 3
32
102
40
101
sA att
x
s
60
16
DURATIONS
saC
x
s
67
15
-
50
-
sA
x
38
s
19
(ms)
The table shows slight differences between the three cases. In
at the
statistical s ignificance
particular, a t-test reveals
F1 onset values both for sa vs. sa att and
for mean
1% level
significant durational
Statistically
saC.
vs.
att
sa
for
differences were found between sa vs. sa att and saC.
We next turned to the question whether these small differences
are at all able
to
influence
listeners'
perception
in the
direction of
the respective
utterances sa
att and satt with
these portions of the
speech flow
excized out
of their con­
texts.
2. 2
A listening test
A series
of stimuli
containing 12 instances of sa att and 12
instances of satt was presented to
nine native
Swedish spea­
kers
of
roughly
the
same
dialect
as
subj. JS. Since the
sequence satt occurred only four times
in our
recorded mate­
rial, copies
of those tokens were introduced randomly to give
an equal number of both stimulus
types. The
resulting set of
stimuli was subsequently duplicated and a new random order was
created for the duplicate. This procedures gave a total of 43 2
responses from
the nine listeners whose task it was to decide
for each stimulus whether it represented sa att or satt.
The results are shown in Table 2 in terms of the outcome
of a
multiple
regression
analysis
using 1-5 predictor variables.
The data refer to
correctly identified
instances of
sa att.
The values
of R for the correlation between number of correct
answers and each individual variable are
given in
the middle
column, and t he cumulative
effect is
shown in the right co­
lumn. Calculated across all
predictor variables,
this effect
is R=0.89.
Table 2. Result of multiple regression analysis: prediction of
number of correctly identified instances of the phrase
sa att
using 1-5 predictor variables. 9 subjects.
PREDICTOR
F.lon
F:;.�on
F.l nuc
F:;.�nuc
Duration
MULTIPLE R
Cumulative
Individual
variables
-0.60
0.77
0. 77
0. 85
0. 89
-0.60
-0.60
-0. 3 5
0. 11
0. 51
We thus obtain a high cumulative
ons from several variables.
-
51
correlation with contributi­
-
3
Corrunents
The
above
relationships,
of course, are purely statistical,
and do not tell us much
about the
perceptual contribution of
each variable. However, F1 onset is the acoustically strongest
effect and may therefore play a
decisive role.
The contribu­
tion of
a possible
spectral difference
in the preceding /s/
should also be evaluated.
On the other hand, it seems
rather unlikely
that these small
differences would
play more than a very subordinate role as a
perceptual criterion in a natural speech context. This
can be
convincingly
demonstrated
by
manipulating
for
example the
utterance
" ... sa att dom Uit ju det dar ga da ... "
(so that they let it go on, then).
listen to
In an informal test we have asked our colleagues to
a) the authentic version of this utterance and to b) a version
where the conjunction sa att Iso
att/ had
been replaced with
the verb form satt /satt/. The latter satt does not make sense
in this context. In consequence, both versions are unanimously
interpreted as containing sa att.
In surrunary
then, small
effects such
as the one demonstrated
here are clearly not perceptually decisive in a natural speech
context. Such
effects may, however, be of interest in certain
other respects. First, the example suggests
that this speaker
does in
fact preserve
traces of underlying segment structure
even in a very
strongly reduced
form. Apparently
then, this
form is
not phonologized
in the
sense that certain segments
entering the phonological base form are completely absent from
the utterance plan. We note, however, that the phonetic varia­
tion between the reduced and elaborated
forms of
sa att were
discontinuous. Thus,
we have
a case where phonetic disconti­
nuity preserves phonological identity.
A second point of interest is the following: Since the speaker
is very
close to
completely eliminating
a segment, for what
reason does he nevertheless preserve it to some
extent; i.e.,
why doesn't
he phonologize
the short form? This question may
be discussed
in
terms
of
various
constraints
on phonetic
speaker-listener interaction.
Thus, on the one hand it can be
assumed that speakers, in
accordance with
Lindblom's view of
adaptive variability (Lindblom 1987), tend to shape the speech
wave so as to
achieve
a
good
balance
between articulatory
effort and
perceptual clarity.
If this balance were optimal,
however, the
vowel corresponding
to /0/
in sa
att would be
reduced completely
since it
is highly predictable in context
and therefore semantically insignificant to the listener.
Reasonably, however, an optimal adaptation would in itself re­
quire
a
fair
amount
of
data processing. Thus, rather than
fine-tuning the
level
of
reduction/elaboration
of segments
according to
their predictability, it would seem to be a more
convenient speaker
strategy
to
manipUlate
the
basic motor
scheme by
means of
a somewhat more coarse-grained adaptation
-
52
-
speaker would sim­
particular, the
of gestural amplitude. In
(hypo) or a strong
weak
aiming at either a
task by
plify his
even
of
traces
phonetic
with
possibly
variety,
(hyper)
underlying segments preserved at both
perceptually negligible
levels.
As a third possibility, it may
be hypothesized
that complete
segment reduction
is marked
stylistically, so that traces of
underlying segments will remain
and be
perceived even though
their
strictly
semantic
value
is
insignificant. The above
experiment demonstrates a case
where
listeners
are
able to
hear a rather subtle variation. The difficulty of dealing with
it from a semantic-perceptual point of view suggests
the need
for adding
the phonostylistic
dimension to the issue of seg­
mental invariance in spontaneous speech.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported in part by the
Swedish National Board
for Technical
Development (STUF)
and The Bank of Sweden Ter­
centenary Foundation (RJ).
Reference
Engstrand, O. and D. Krull. 1988. On the systematicity of
phonetic variation in spontaneous speech. PERILUS VI II (this
volume) .
Lindblom, B. 1987. Adaptive variability and absolute constancy
in speech signals: two themes in the quest for phonetic in­
variance. Proc. XIth ICPhS, Tallinn, Estonia, Aug. 1987, Vol.
3 , pp. 9-18. Also in PERILUS V, pp. 2-20.
-
53
-
VARIATION AND INVARIANCE IN THE Cl1ARACI'ERISTIC
PARALINGUISTIC
�ES
OF VCWELS.
Hartmut TraunmUller
ABSTRACT .
It
is
affect
shown that within speaker variations in vocal effort and
F0
phonation
and the formant frequencies of vowels in the sense of a
compression/expansion
of
the distances between them,
scaling of pitch (tonotopic or logaritlmic).
given
an
linear
adequate
Between speaker variations in
size correspond to a translation of the spectral peaks shaped by FO and the
formants
if
pitch is scaled tonotopically (in Bark) .
adult waren tend,
however,
Vowels produced
to be phonetically more explicite and,
by
hence,
more peripheral in "vowel space" than those of men and children.
rnmOOOCTION
A main line of research within experimental phonetics is concerned with the
variation
for
of the acoustic properties of speech sounds and with the
generally
listeners.
search
valid acoustic correlates to phonetiC distinctions made
There are several sources of variation in the acoustic
ties of speech signals.
by
proper­
Sane kinds of variation involve audible variations
in phonetiC quality between utterances with the same meaning, such as would
be reflected in a phonetiC transcription.
(dialectal,
signal
femt
signal,
sociolectal,
These can be called "linguistic"
idiolectal) variations. The conditions of speech
transmission between speaker and listener are the source of a
kind of variation which affects the acoustic properties of a
dif­
speech
but which within wide limits does not affect its phonetiC quality.
Another dichotomy is that between,
text (coarticulation,
on the one hand,
variation due to con­
syntax) or context effects on the perceived phonetic
quality of segnents and,
on the other hand, variation due to factors other
than the linguistic context.
In
this paper we are only concerned with the latter type of variations
-
54
-
in
the spectral properties of vowels,
sex,
enotion, and audibility intention of the speaker . These
or attitude,
personal
factors
such as due to variations in size, age,
affect
the production of the speech signal
in
various
ways,
and the resulting variation carries biologically important
tion,
either characteristic or "symptanatic" of the speaker . As listeners,
we
are
man,
When we hear
j ust
a
sound we hear imnediately whether it has been produced by
a
highly aware of paralinguistic information .
single
vowel
informa­
a wanan,
or a child .
We perceive the degree of vocal effort used to
produce it, and if the speaker is enotionally affected, we can hear whether
he is cheerful, grieved, angry, or afraid . For this, it is not necessary to
have
perceived
paralinguistic
the phonetic quality of the vowel .
camunication,
which
The
systen
shares essential features
equivalent systens of several other species,
of
human
with
the
appears to have priority over
the facility of linguistic communication specific to humans .
While
the
the acoustic consequences of the age- and sex-related variations
shape
and
structures,
overall size of the vocal
are
communication .
quite substantial,
The
expression
expression of phonetic quality,
analyse
the
frequencies
of
their
versus
tract,
including
the
of enotions does not either
except in extrene cases .
restrict
We are going
of vowels without interfering essentially with the
whispered
speech) .
glottal
this does not appear to hinder speech
effects of those types of variation which affect the
phonetiC quality:
in
Vocal effort and mode
of
the
to
formant
expression
phonation
(voiced
Variation of this kind is used by speakers
in
order
to adapt to various denands set by environmental
circums tances:
We
shout
in order to be heard by an addressee and we whisper in order not
to
be heard by others .
Moreover,
this kind of variation is also
essentially
involved in the expression of enotions and attitudes .
Peterson
are
and Barney [195 2 ] observed that the formant frequencies of vowels
reproduced with high precision by a speaker repeating the same
utter­
ance, while there is much more variation between speakers, in particular if
they
differ
in age or sex .
Their set of
data
includes,
considerable linguistic variation in phonetic quality .
"normalize"
phonetiC
however,
Also in attempts to
formant frequency data on vowels a strict distinction
and non-phonetic variation was not always
also
made
[e .
g.
between
Disner,
1980] . For sane restricted applications, e . g . in autanatic speech recogni­
tion,
such
a distinction may not be as essential as it is if we aim at an
- 55 -
understanding
Barney's
human
observation
fonnant
were
of
speech perception .
most
SUbsequent
studies a�g at an
to
Peterson
understanding
frequency variation from a viewpoint of production
of
or
and
vowel
perception
concerned with inter-speaker variation [Ladefoged and Broadbent 1957,
Fant 1966,
E\lj isaki and Kawashima, 1968, Pols et al 1969, Nordstran
1975,
Kent and Forner 1979, Goldstein 1980, Ananthapadmanabha 1984, Bladon
1977,
et ale 1984, TraunmUller 1984, Syrdal 1985, Syrdal et al 1986] .
Phoneticians
fonnant
that
appear
frequencies
individual
to have overlooked the
intra-speaker
variations
that should be expected as a consequence of the
speakers are capable of producing the
same
vowels
in
fact
with
quite different articulations: It is generally known that we open our rrouth
more
when shouting than when speaking softly .
The articulatory,
acoustic
and perceptual consequences of variations in vocal effort have only recent­
ly been subjected to thorough experimental investigation [Rostolland, 1982;
1988] .
Schulman,
considered
such
as
speech
in
The effects of variations in vocal effort have not
treatises on theories of speech production
"action
theory" [Fowler et al,
and
1980] and "the motor
perception" [Libe nnan and Mattingly 1985],
been
perception
theory
to which these
of
effects
appear to be crucially relevant .
WITHIN-SPEAKER VARIATION
The spectral variations we find within speakers concern mainly
mode of phonation,
intonation,
and vocal effort . Studies concerned with the expression
of erotions [Williams and Stevens,
1972 ] focused on the effects of real or
imitated
frequency,
erotions
on fundamental
signal
intensity,
and
on
segment durations . Average FO' range of FO-variation, signal intensity, and
segment
durations have all been shown to vary as a function of the erotio­
nal state of the speaker .
As for variations due to the attidude of the speaker,
there has been
sane
research concerned with "baby-talk", the speech of adults directed to young
children .
Garnica [1977] reported,
i.
a.,
an increased mean FO'
an in­
creased Fo-range (expressed in senitones), and frequent appearance of parts
of sentences being whispered .
- 56
-
We
are
going
to
include Fa arrong the
as motivated below,
vowels,
"characteristic
rut concerning their phonetic quality,
not informative unless the formant frequencies,
of
Fa is
in particular F l' also are
Williams and stevens [1972] observed an effect on Fl in addition to
known.
Fa:
frequencies"
F1 is higher in stressed vowels in utterances produced under anger, as
canpared with the same utterances produced withaut erotion . They p.1blished,
however,
no
quantitative data on this effect .
As for attirudinal
varia­
tions, I am not aware of any formant frequency measurements .
The formant frequencies of vowels produced with high vocal effort
(shouted
vowels) are difficult to measure because the shouted voice is characterized
very high F0 (see Table 1) and, hence, by large gaps between the
harmonics sampling the spectral envelope . Published data are therefore
by
a
scanty in the literarure .
Fr!ZSkjesr-Jensen [1966] canpared Fl to F4 in shou­
ted
Danish vowels with those in the corresponding vowels spoken by 20 male
and
fenale
measured .
to
F4)
only F1 and F2 appear to have been acrually
Rostolland and Parant [1974] give median formant frequencies (F1
speakers,
of
rut
vowels in disyllabic words produced by three
male
and
three
fenale speakers (see Table 1) . The authors consider these values as "debat­
able"
and give no details on the method of formant frequency
These data show,
however,
measurement .
quite dramatic increases in Fa (Further details
on this in Rostolland [1982]) and in Fl with an increase in vocal effort .
Table
spoken
1:
Characteristic
frequencies
of vowels in
French
and shouted by three male and three fenale speakers,
Rostolland and Parant [1974] .
/CVCV/-words,
according
Reliability of data on Fl to F4 in
is in question .
Characteristic frequency
mean
speaking
Shouting
Shouting/Speaking
FO
200
437
2.2
median Fl
400
750
1.9
median F2
median F 3
1 500
1 600
1.1
2 250
2 3 00
1.0
median F4
3 750
3 100
0.8
- 57
-
to
shouting
[1985]
Schulman
vowels
measurerl
formant frequencies (F1 to F 3 )
10
of
spoken and shouterl by three male speakers (unp..1blisherl,
Swerlish
except for
F1 and F2 of one speaker, userl in a figure) . The differences found between.
the two speech conditions are similar to those reporterl by Rostolland and
Parant [1974],
rut the increase in F1 is not quite as large .
Zhang [1987]
measurerl F1 and F2 of [i], [a], and [u] in Chinese rronosyllables uttererl by
six male and six fenale speakers at three levels of vocal effort (to obtain
sound levels of 55,
65,
and 75 dB) . Both formants and FO showerl a consis­
tent increase in frequency with an increase in level .
[1988]
Schulman
utterances
strictly
spoken
by
describes mandib..la
l r and labial
four
linear
Swedes,
relationship
and in shouterl vowels .
speaking and shouting .
of
He reports
between. vowel specific
j aw
ones .
[ibVb]
a
Jaw depression was increaserl by a
in
speaker­
with
the
Three of the four subj ects producerl the shouterl close vowels
[i Y 1:i u] with the same degree of j aw depression as the spoken open
[ffi
quite
depression
factor of 1 . 6 to 3 . 1 in the shouterl vowels as canparerl
specific
spoken
articulation
vowels
a 1:)] .
If the tounge shape of a given vowel is unchangerl in relation to
jaw,
this would imply a correspondingly increaserl value of F1 in the
vowels [cf . Lindblan and Sundberg, 1971] . Although no data on
the
shouterl
tongue
shape
shouterl vowels have been. p..1blisherl,
the
acoustic
shape
as seen. in relation to the j aw .
which
As
known
subjects producerl a vowel with
fran
experiments
in
frequencies
of a spoken [i] with the jaw being lockerl in a
adequate
data
1985] are canpatible with the hypothesis of a grossly invariant
[Schulman,
tongue
in
the
for the production of an open vowel [Gay et al,
bite-block
characteristic
position
1977],
more
speakers
are capable of canpensating for a low j aw position by adopting a
different
tongue shape . The acoustic data on shouterl vowels do not show any canpensa­
tion like this .
Since
j aw
depression
is highly correlaterl with F1 we
should
expect
an
increase in F1 with an increase in vocal effort, for any vowel . This agrees
with the p..1blisherl data, as can be seen. in Figure 1 . Only the Danish [a] of
male
speakers
appears
increases more in
This
showerl
Hz
to be an exception .
close
that
rut less in % for open vowels than for closerl
does not hold strictly for each speaker .
a
Figure 1 also shows
to constant increase in Hz,
constant percentage increase in F1 .
- 58
-
Two of Schulman's
while one showerl
F1
vowels.
speakers
a
roughly
1200
Figure 1:
shouted
1000
N
:::c
BOO
<II
o+J
;j
0
.t:
GOO
"-
'-'
-0
'"
l.L
�
F1 in the same vowels
( vertically)
and
pro­
duced with rroderate vocal effort
(horizontally) .
Mean
vowels
by five
male
400
produced
and
Danish,
200
/
o
/
/
/
/
MalE' (D)
FE'malE' (0)
MalE' (5)
ten
[J
0
and
vowels
spokE'n
adult
speakers
of
produced
by
three
Swedish.
Fre­
quency
data
fran
B.
FnzSkjrer­
Jensen
[1966] and
R.
Schulman
[1985] .
for a given speaker there is a close correlation between F1 and
While
depression,
vocal
i.
tract,
openness:
e.,
this
Vowels
of
individual data of
male speakers of
DB
................................... - .............. .
Fl
female
data
jaw
between F1 and the physical degree of openness of the
does not provide us with a valid measure
heard
as identical in phonetic quality
of
have
phonetic
different
degrees of jaw depression and, consequently, different F1s depending on the
vocal effort with which they are produced . Listeners as well as lip readers
appear to encounter the problem of segregating effects of vocal effort fran
cues to phonetiC openness.
even
We know that listeners find a solution
being aware of any problem,
phonetiC
openness
rut if F1 in a vowel depends on both its
and on vocal effort,
phonetiC openness in vowels?
without
on which basis do
they
perceive
This is particularly interesting since beside
F1 there appears to be no other major acoustic cue to phonetiC openness.
Sane
insight into the perceptual process of segregating effects
effort
fran phonetiC vowel openness has been gained fran a few
experiments [Traunrrill
l. er,
1981:
were
later
repeated
vocal
perceptual
Exp. 2-4] intended to test the generality
of findings obtained with synthetic one-formant vowels .
which
of
with
closer
to
These experiments,
natural
synthetic
vowels
[TraunrrillJ.er, 1985] demonstrated very convincingly that
( a)
F1
is
the
major cue to the perceived
degree
of
openness
in
vowels;
(b) within wide margins,
an F1 increase can be offset by a
concanit­
tant Fa increase in order to keep invariant the phonetiC quality, in parti-
- 59
-
cular the perceived phonetic opermess , of a vowel ;
(c)
while
invariant ,
this
kind of manip..llation is apt to
vowel
quality
it does affect the perceived degree of vocal effort : The latter
increases with increasing F0
According
keep
&
F1 if the upper formants are not touched.
to ( b ) ,
knowledge of F0 is required in order to decide upon the
degree of opermess of a phonated vowel . Consequently , we have to include F0
among the characteristic frequencies of vowels . Another motive for this can
be seen in the intrinsic pitch differences between vowels ,
nega­
tively
pitch
correlated
with Fl .
FO being
At least in stressed syllables , these
There are a
differences are clearly above the threshold of discrimination .
variety of proposals to explain intrinsic pitch by sane kind of acoustical ,
aerodynamical ,
or
physiological
[Ohala and Eukel ,
1987 ;
interaction between
tongue
to
larynx
Rossi and Autesserre , 1981 ] . Whatever the primary
conditioning factor for these pitch differences may be,
appear
and
be maintained intentionally .
in sane cases they
The existence of intrinsic
pitch
differences in oesophageal speech [ Gandour and Weinberg , 1 9 80 ] may possibly
require such an explanation.
The clearly increased F0 in the close
German as canpared with the vowels of Eastern Central
vowels
of
German
Viennese
may
also be interpreted in this way [ Iivonen ,
overall higher F0 in Viennese German tells us ,
also admit other explanations .
'"
N
::I:
0
0
.....
<II
>
0
�
(/)
<II
s:
0
+'
.....
E
<II
(f)
'V
o
u..
Bf-
I
I
I
I
:
IJ
&1-
I
I
IJ
I
.........
IJ
:
2-
:
m
:
:
-
:
-
.
.
.. . .... ... :
-
IJ
ID
however ,
Figure
2:
Intrinsic
vowels
in
standard
Halle
:
2.
The
that the data may
pitch
( FO )
German as
( circles ) and in
Vienna
of
the
spoken
in
( squares ) ,
scaled logarithnically , shown as a function
..
o
see Figure
-
-
m
o
0-
I
:
rmDD
4 -
-2 -
I
1 9 87 ] ,
1
2 3 4
Zl
5
<Bark)
b
7
B
-
of
Fl '
Open
scaled
symbols
tonotopically
short ,
( abscissa ) .
filled symbols
vowels. Data from A. Iivonen [1987 ] .
- 60
-
long
While it had been observed previously that FO affects the perceived
tic
quality
1953 ;
of synthetic vowels with given formant
Slawson
limits
1968 ] ,
frequencies
TraunmUlle r [1981 ] suggested that ,
phone­
[Miller ,
within
certain
and with certain minor rrro ifications ,
perceived openness in vowels
is given by the tonotopic distance between F1 and F0 ' measured in Zwicker ' s
[1960 ] critical band units ( Bark ) . If this is so , differences in openness
might be cued by FO as efficiently as by Fl .
not
easily vary FO as much as Fl ( in Bark ) ,
However ,
a given speaker can
and FO is needed
to
express
other linguistic and paralinguistic features .
As for variations in vocal effort , the data by Rostolland and Parant [1974 ]
appear
to
be
compatible with the hypothesis of
an
invariant
tonotopic
between F1 and F0 . The values fran Table 1 result in Dl
2. 3 Bark ( speaking ) and Dl = 2 . 8 Bark ( shouting ) . While Dl appears to be a
distance ,
"Dl"
=
little too high in shouting ,
the discrepancy is actually smaller than
0. 5
Bark ( The calculation should , appropriately , be based on critical band rate
values
75
instead of frequencies ) .
dB )
Zhang
syllables )
For a 20 dB increase in level ( fran 55 to
an increase in Fl of 70-110 Hz in closed vowels
and
and about 200 Hz in [ a ] .
other
syllables )
agree
with our hypothesis while that for [ a ] is s anewhat
without
For
the
Hz
[1987 ] reports an increase in FO of 50 - 110
The values for
( in
sane
( in
sane
closed
too
large ,
access to the complete data no reliable conclusions can be
conversion of frequency f to critical band rate z,
[fran Traunrrill
l er ,
1 9 8 3 ] will be used in this paper .
vowels
rut
drawn.
Equation
(1)
Within the frequency
range fran 0 . 2 to 6 . 8 kHz , the values calculated with this equation deviate
less than ± 0 . 05 Bark fran the values listed by Zwicker [1960 ]
z
=
+
26 . 81 / ( 1
1960 / f ) - 0 . 5 3
(1)
with f in Hz and z in Bark .
The
distance
Dl in the ten shouted Swedish
smaller by 0 . 6 Bark ,
between vowels is ,
vowel should ,
the
equivalent
in the
mean,
vowels
[Schulman ,
1 9 85 ]
is
than in the spoken versions . The spread
however , quite large . The phonetic quality of a shouted
of course , not be expected to be exactly the same as that of
spoken one .
In the shouted vowels we would rather
expect
sane additional stochastic deviation fran the ideal quality intended by the
speaker.
- 61
-
In
SLn1lT1a ry ,
the data shCM D1 in the shouted vowels to be a little too high
and Parant , 1 9 74 ] , or a little too lCM [ Schulman , 1985 ] .
[Rostolland
Fr!DkjCEr-Jensen ' s [ 1 9 6 6 ] rreasurements can not be evaluated in this
respect ,
because data on Fa were not included. on the whole , the rreager and not very
reliable data which we have on shouted vCMelS agree , in approximation , with
the
findings fran the perceptual experiments and with the hypothesis of an
invariant
distance between F1 and Fa. The observation of an
increased Fa and F1 in angry stressed vCMelS [Williams and Stevens , 1 9 7 2 ]
agrees qualitatively . The data [ Fr!DkjCEr-Jensen , 1 9 7 4 ; Schulman , 1 9 85 ;
Zhang ,
tonotopic
1987 ]
also indicate a marginally significant positive
correlation
between AD 1 and D1 .
Figure 3 shCMS Az as a function of z for Fa ' F1 , F2 , and F 3 in Schulman ' s
data. The figure shCMS an overall negative correlation between 4Z and z for
all these characteristic frequencies considered without discrimination .
It
can be seen that F2 is increased in the shouted versions , in particular in
the back rounded vCMelS , in which F2 is lCM . F 3 appears not to be affected
consistently by a change in vocal effort .
the
same
slope.
kind
Those
The data of Fr0kj CEr-Jensen
shCM
of correlation ( for F1 and F2 ) , with a s anewhat steeper
of Rostolland and Parant ( only rrean or median values ) also
agree qualitatively .
.
.....
�
-0
o
E
Figure
3
o
lID
2
o
§
0
0
00
00
o
o
............... ......
a.
....,
o
f
co
u
FO
o
0
0
o
00
o
.. . ... ..
0
·
llJ
riB
o
.. ·0·0
to
moderate
vocal effort ;
data
each
on
three
Olo
adult
Swedish :
plotted
o
............. .......... -0 ............. .
o
Critical band rates
rate
male
Differences
produced
speakers
against values fran
data
fran
by
of
( vertically )
version ( horizontally ) .
quency
F3 CB-rotE',
vCMel
individual
R.
mode­
Fre­
Schulman
mociE'Y'atE' E'ffort
While the perceptual experiments with synthetic vCMels [Traunml1lle r ,
were
of
Fa ' F1 , F2 , and F 3 of the same ten
vCMels shouted and produced with
o
-1
3:
not designed to investigate variations in vocal effort ,
-
62
-
they
1 9 81]
dernon-
that the tonotopic distance D2 ( between F1 and F2 ) or that between
F1 and the group of higher formants , is largely irrelevant to the percep­
tion of those vowels in which D2 is relatively large . This was also ob­
strated
served by zhukov and Chistovich [ 19 85 ] in identifications of noise
two-formant
vowels .
It
is at variance with Chiba and
Kaj iyarna ' s
[ 1 941 ]
space-pattern
theory .
the
irrelevancy of the tonotopic distance between F2 and F1 in
is no longer unexpected . This distance will decrease with
phonetic
front
vowels
After consideration of variations in vocal
excited
effort ,
F1 increases roo re than F2 ) . There­
cannot constitute an invariant cue to any aspect of the phonetic
increasing vocal effort ( tonotopically ,
fore ,
it
quality of these vowels .
TraunmUller
and
Lacerda [ 1 987 ] investigated
swedes
and
Turks ,
cally .
In
the
perception ,
mainly
by
of synthetic two-formant vowels in which F1 was kept
closely above FO ' while both together as well as F2 ' were varied systenati­
accordance with the hypothesis of D1 being the cue to phonetic
roos t subj ects heard close vowels , no matter how high F1 was . The
openness ,
other investigated aspect was the distinction between the four close vowels
whether this distinction was based on F2 ' alone or on
F2 ' in relation to F0 and Fl . The results showed that the phoneme bounda­
ries between the close vowels could be described quite accurately by the
in
these languages ,
equation
I2 '
=
(2)
15. 3 - (Z O
+
3.2)
where 1 2 , is a constant specific to a particular phonetic boundary while Z o
and Z 2 ' are the critical band rates ( in Bark ) of F0 and F2 ' . Equation ( 2 )
rerroves the effects of uniform spectral canpressions with respect to the
distance
between an upper reference point at 15. 3 Bark ( = 2 . 8 kHz)
and
a
if F2 ' was low , it was
considered in relation to F1 and FO ' but at F2 ' around 2. 8 kHz the phonetic
boundaries were given by F2 ' alone . At about the same critical band rate
lower
one
( 15 . 3
Bark ) the regression line in Figure 3 can be seen to cross the zero­
line .
This suggests that Equation ( 2 ) might apply also to these data ,
that
we
located at 3 . 2 Bark above Z O .
might
Thus ,
extend its application to any spectral
quality such as F1 and the higher formants .
-
63
-
cues
to
and
phonetic
An 1 1 might then be calculated
by simply substituting Zl for Z2 ' in Equation ( 2 ) . The assumption that Dl
is the maj or cue to openness in vowels agrees closely , but not precisely ,
with the generalized Equation ( 2 ) .
dered
open
If the lower reference point is
consi­
to be located at 3 . 2 Bark above Z o the agreement is exact for half­
vowels with Dl = 3 . 2 Bark ( II = 0 ) . If applied to the formants above
2. 8 kHz , Equation ( 2 ) would predict slightly lowered formant frequencies in
shouted vowels .
This agrees qualitatively with the lowered F4 reported by
Rostolland and Parant [ 1 974 ] , but the reported value is too low and probab­
ly not reliable.
.
�
o
.c
P-
Figure
3
Men
'IIomE?Y\
I
-0
a.
Sa.
PU>
.c
�
v
.
....
'+-
-0
a.
"'"'
o
r
en
u
2
[J
.
1
_
[J
D--()..
o
0
_
--
. - - . . • . . .
EI
. .
8
male ( squares ) and 15
adult
fenale ( circles ) speakers of Ameri­
can
0-
'1,%
. · · - - . - - - - - - - - - - -
English
Differences
0.
( group
mean
data ) :
( vertically )
plotted
against phonated version
-1
( horizon­
tally ) . Formant frequency data fran
o
Fl
i.o
Kallail
5
10
F3 CB-ro.i.e,
and
whispered
K.
'Phonai.e>d
Einanuel [ 1 9 84a ,
J.
Kallail and F.
1984b ] measured the formant
Emanuel
frequencies
They observed increased
Fl and F2 in the whispered vowels . At least in part ,
formant frequencies are due to the open glottis in
197 2 ;
these
whispering
in order to make then sufficiently audible.
Kallail
and
Emanuel do not inform us about the
the formant frequencies in the two modes of
between
in
the
[cf.
Fuj inura and Lindquist , 1 9 7 1 ] . In addition , the whispered
vowels ,
canpared
values
increased
may have been articulated with more vocal effort than the
vowels
in
vowels produced by men and by waren and canpared then with those
of
Flanagan ,
W.
[ 19 84a ] and [ 19 84b ] .
measured in the same vowels when phonated .
about
of
F2 , and F 3 of the same five
vowels whispered and phonated by 15
adult
-'EJ
Critical band rates
F1 ,
0
o
: �
4:
Figure 4 ,
for both male and fenale
phonated
The investigations by
articulations ,
but
production .
These
speakers .
The
formant frequencies in whispered and phonated vowels
strikingly similar to that between shouted and spoken vowels ,
only
are
relation
appears
i. e . , whis­
pered vowels appear to have the same formant frequencies as shouted vowels.
-
64
-
As canpared with phonated vowels ,
are
the auditory spectra of whispered vowels
canpressed just like those of shouted vowels .
Whispered
and
shouted
vowels are also Sat'leNhat similar in their deemphasis of the lower frequency
range .
In
vowels
roth cases Fl is relatively weak . While shouted and whispered
are related to moderately phonated vowels by similar transfonna­
tions ,
there
is
no invariant relationship between any two of
the
three
aspects of vowels : articulation , fonnant frequencies , and phonetic quality.
In
order
to result in similar fonnant frequencies ,
the
articulation
of
whispered vowels must be different fran that of shouted ones , while shouted
vowels
differ fran moderately phonated ones as well in articulation as
in
fonnant frequencies .
The
absence of a fund amental in the whispered vowels poses a
problem :
If
the opermess of phonated vowels is judged on the basis of Fl in relation to
F0 ' this is obviously excluded in whispered vowels . An equivalent F0 might
perhaps
be
vowels or ,
sic
estimated
on the basis of other properties of
the
whispered
rrore confidently , on the basis of a voiced context . The intrin­
perceptual
cues
for opermess appear to
be
deficient
in
whispered
vowels.
As for changes in FO due to factors other than vocal effort , our knowledge
about their articulatory consequences reflected in the fonnant frequencies
of vowels is quite rudimentary .
spoken
with
Bladon [ 1982 ] measured Fl in English words
changing
F0 by men and waren . He obseved that F1 was not
affected as long as F1 remained arove roughly 3 . 5 F0 . otherwise , F1 in­
creased with F0 approximately in such a way as to retain an invariant ratio
F1 /FO ' which implies an invariant distance between Fl and FO ' expressed not
in Bark rut in a logarithmic measure of frequency , such as semitones .
Sundberg [ 1975 ] investigated the effects of variations in FO on the fonnant
frequencies of vowels in one soprano singer . He found that Fl is kept
as long as it is clearly arove FO ' rut Fl is not allowed to fall
below FO . This result may , however , not be typical of speech . In singing ,
as distinct fran the linguistic use of the organ of speech , the phonetiC
constant
quality of speech sounds may be allowed to be affected by changes in
those
variables as pitch and volume with which the singer is primarily concerned .
The
observations and interpretations of the relation between FO and Fl
-
65
-
by
Sundberg [1975] ,
(S) ,
TraunmOller [ 19 81 ] ,
(T) ,
and Bladon [ 1982 ] ,
(B) ,
agree
in sane aspects and disagree in others . For close vowels , S and T
agree at any Fo. For the lowest F0 ' s S and T agree on that phonetiC quality
is essentially independent of Fo. In roth these cases there is a disagree­
ment with B I S close vowels at low F0 ' s . For other vowels T and B agree
quite well , although their data evoke different explanations . For half-open
vowels at high FO ' S S disagrees sharply with B and only slightly less with
T : S observed no increase in F1 untill F0 was close to it - while B ob­
served F1 to increase proportionally with FO . The discrepancy may be due to
a conflict between the requirements of singing ( S ) and those of speaking
( B , T ) . In back rounded vowels , Sundberg reported F2 to increase proportio­
nally with F0 . Only if F1 also would increase with F0 ' this would agree
with the hypothesis of invariant tonotopical distances between close spec­
tral peaks ( T ) .
BETWEEN-SPEAKER VARIATION
Contrary to the paralinguistic within-speaker variation ,
related
between-speaker
variation
the age- and sex­
in the characteristic
vowels attracted the attention of investigators long ago .
was
probably
first
vowels produced by
The
speaker
vowels are ,
to actually measure higher resonance
waren
category
[1915 ]
frequencies
in
characteristic
frequencies
of
a consequence of the size differences between
organs of speech of different speakers .
the
Crandall
of
than in those produced by men .
differences in the
obviously ,
frequencies
To
the
a first order of approximation ,
age- and sex-dependency of vowel formant frequencies can be understood
as a consequence of a proportional up- or down-scaling of all three
sions of the vocal tract .
dimen­
A uniform rescaling of a vocal tract would leave
the formant frequency ratios invariant . It has been observed , however , that
the
female/male
formant frequency ratios deviate quite consistently
from
uniformity [Fant , 1975 ] . Such deviations lead us to the conclusion that the
vocal
tract
proportional .
ferences
on
[NOrdstrem,
shapes
in men and waren producing the same
vowels
are
not
Attanpts to calculate the female-male formant frequency dif­
the
basis of anatomical data were
not
entirely
successful
1977; Goldstein , 1980; TraunmOlle r , 1 9 84 ] . While the differen­
ces in F3 and F2 could be predicted satisfactorily , there remained problems
-
66 -
Despite the large between-speaker differences :in vowel formant frequencies ,
the
idea
that perceived vowel quali ty essentially might be given
absolute
present
formant
day
capability
frequencies still sometimes appears to
speech research.
to
be
by
the
�licit
:in
This contrasts with our knowledge that
make accurate absolute j udganents of pitch
is
only
the
found
exceptionally , :in some people said to possess "absolute hear:ing" , while all
normal hear:ing people are kncmn to be highly proficient :in j udg:ing relative
pitch.
This aspect is easily overseen ,
s:ince most acoustic data on speech
sounds orig:inate fran adult speakers ,
:in particular fran men The measure­
ment of formant frequencies :in children ' s vowels is j ust as difficult as :in
shouted vowels.
be
acceptable
.
Consider:ing only adult speakers ,
it may for some plrposes
to say that the same vowels have roughly the same
formant frequencies.
Figure 5 ,
however ,
absolute
demonstrates rather clearly that
this can no longer be said if we canpare the vowels of adult men with those
of k:indergarten children.
mants
of
The vowel spaces circumscribed by the mean
for­
the five Japanese vowels of the two groups of speakers not
only
fail to co:incide but they do not even overlap.
20
, . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
Figure
Tonotopically scaled F1
( horizontally ) and F2 ( vertically )
.. .. . ,
:in
15
the
5:
five Japanese vowels
duced by children aged 4 to 5 years
and by adult male
N
l.I..
area
10
speakers.
shcmn by l:ine connect:ing them. Mean
:in
: . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .
Fl
The
1970 ]
Vowel
circumscribed by these vowels
values obta:ined fran five
5
pro­
data
:in
( Bo.r k )
15
each group.
data
[ 1970 ] .
fran
H.
Ebrmant
FUj isaki
et
ale
19 87. ]
[ FUj isaki
the vowels fran six physiologically different
speakers were analysed.
frequency
[ Adapted fran TraunrnUller ,
used for Figure 5 are fran an :investigation
which
speakers
There were five speakers :in each of the
-
67 -
et
groups
al. ,
of
follow:ing
male adults , fanale adults , girls (12-14 a ) , boys after maturation
groups :
of voice ( 12-14 a ) ,
garten
boys before maturation of voice ( 1 2-14 a ) , and kinder­
The relations between the formant frequencies of
children ( 4-5 a ) .
the same vowels produced by the different groups of speakers can be
means
ciated by
appre­
of the Figures 6a-c . Each figure shows , for sane particular
groups of speakers , the deviation of the
mean
log ( f ) of each characteristic
peak of each vowel fran an arbitrary standard value . The standard value was
defined
three
as the
mean
value fran all speaker groups with the first mentioned
groups given dubble weight .
Figure 6a displays the vowels
of
men ,
wanen , and kindergarten children . The developnent in each sex can be appre­
ciated
in Figures 6b and 6c .
between
adult
described
quite
regression
female
men
lines
speakers
uniformities
and
Figure 6b shows that the overall
boys just after maturation of the
well by a uniform scale
factor
( 1 . 14 ) :
difference
voice
The
can
respective
The difference between adult male
run in parallel .
is less well described by a uniform
scale
be
factor .
and
Non­
similar to those observed by Fant [ 19 7 5 ] are present also
in
these data .
More importantly ,
however , Figures 6b and 6c make it clear that the diffe­
rences between adults ( including boys after maturation of voice ) and
dren
can
not be described satisfactorily by a uniform scale
respective regression lines do not run in parallel .
chil­
factor :
The
The data are , however ,
described quite well by linear regression lines whose slope changes cons is­
tently
scribes
with maturation .
the
The power function expressed in Equation ( 3 )
relationship
between the formant frequencies Fa
different speaker groups according to those regression lines .
and
Fb
de­
of
(3)
constants k1 and p are specific to each pair of speaker groups . The
factor k 1 represents the scale factor for Fa = 1 frequency unit . For sane
The
the values of k1 and p are listed in Table 2 . Scale factors for FO
optimal uniform scale factors for the formants are also included for
pairs ,
and
canparison .
In order to give an idea of the consequences of the particular
canbinations of k1 and p within the formant frequency range ,
scale factors at Fa = 300 and 3000 HZ are also listed .
-
68
-
the resulting
\0
(J\
a,
If)
-9
-4
'....,e
a,
f;:
o
0
4
f-
'r
'"
�
a,
>
0
'"
....,a
8
"C
"C
12
CD
m
$I
m DI
IS
J�---
uJDl
DB
•
IS
.
2
.5
6
10
(kHz)
5
.
2
.5
Cha.racteristic
.1
0
$I
frequency
CD
0
b
CD
it
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
freoqueoncy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IS
CharactE'ristic
.
. . .,
I
:II
II
$I
Ch i Idr!?n
Prop-pubP'!' ty ll.
Pos t -pub!?!" ty [J
Adul ts
lID
Logaritlrnically scaled Fa , F1 , F2 , and F 3 of the same five vowels of
produced by physiologically different groups of speakers ( group mean data ) : Devia­
( a to c ) :
frequE'ncy
2
,
•
:II
:It
Ch i 1 d'!' t>n
Ado 1 t> S C E'n ts
Adul t.s
waren,
and kindergarten children ( age 4-5 years ) .
kindergarten children ,
boys before maturation of voice ( age 12-14
maturation of voice ( age 12-14 years ) , and adult men .
( c)
(b) kindergarten children , girls ( age 12-14 years ) , and adult waren .
( a) adult men , adult
years ) ,
Regression line fitted to the formant data shown for each group .
data fran H. Fuj isaki et al . [ 19 70 ] .
defined in text .
boys
after
Frequency
tion f ran a standard value ( vertically ) plotted against actual value ( horizontally ) . Standard
Japanese
Figu re
Cha.racteris tic
.1
: ...,..................................................� ..:
II
!!I-'
-1mJ!
__
f
•
:II
�IS
Child'l"l?n
Wom!?n
Mpn
"­
o
(/)
....,8
a
"C
"C
Cl..
f;:
a,
o
s­
a,
100 ...,
1 50
200
Table 2 : Scale factors for FO ( kFO ) and for undiscriminated formants ( Fl to
F 3 ) corresponding to regression lines in Figure 6 . Best uniform scale
( k ) and factors at 300 Hz,
factor
with
F in Hz ).
Last column :
3000 Hz ,
and 1 Hz ( kl in Equation ( 3 )
Exponent p in Equation ( 3 ) . Between speaker
canparison based on Japanese data [ E\..lj isaki et al ,
six European languages [ Fant ,
Swedish [ Scirulman ,
1975 ] .
1 9 70 ] , and on data fran
Within speaker canparisons based
on
1985 ] ( shouting ) , and on American English data [ Kallail
and Emanuel , 1 9 84a , b ] ( whispering ) .
p
men
boys , mat. , 12-14 a
1 . 29
1 . 14
1 . 14
1 . 13
1 . 14
0 . 999
men
boys , :imnat. , 12-14 a
1 . 93
1 . 26
1 . 41
1 . 16
2 . 29
0 . 9 15
men
children , 4-5 a
2 . 34
1 . 64
1 . 99
1 . 42
4 . 55
0 . 855
women
girls , 12-14 a
1 . 27
1 . 05
1 . 15
1 . 01
1 . 62
0 . 940
women
children , 4-5 a
1 . 32
1 . 34
1 . 75
1 . 18
4 . 72
0 . 827
men
women
1 . 77
1 . 22
1 . 18
1 . 25
1 . 02
1 . 026
men
women
1 . 14
1 . 08
1 . 19
0 . 84
1 . 044
1 . 14
1 . 36
0 . 99
2 . 99
0 . 86 2
voiced whispered ( men )
1 . 14
1 . 43
0 . 97
3 . 73
0 . 8 31
voiced whispered (women)
1 . 08
1 . 30
0 . 99
2 . 55
0 . 882
normal shouted
[Fant , 1975 ]
*
2 . 12
( men )
Figure 7 shows that within-speaker variation in the formant frequencies
of
vowels can also be described quite well with Equation ( 3 ) . The values of kl
and p for the data on shouted and whispered vowels which have been used
above are also listed in Table 2 .
While a pcMer function ( Equation 3 ) describes the relationships between the
formant
and/or
frequencies
of
the same vowels produced
with different kinds of phonation
quite satisfactorily ,
( normal ,
by
different
shouting ,
the calculated values would not ,
70
-
whispering )
in general ,
with the observed ones if Equation ( 3 ) was also applied to F0 .
-
speakers
agree
'-l
(fl
E
'"
II)
'"
c:
o
...,
�
Q,
>
o
II)
.3
"1:S
c:
B
"1:S
1
•
2
8
5
Fl
SpokE"n
o
0-
to
F3
a
F0 '
-4.
0
4.
8.
12.
.2
frE'qUE'ncy
.5
Fl
2
to
F3
5
10
Regression lines also shown ( dashed for wo­
Differences ( vertically ) plotted against values
sarre
b
100
150
200
vowels
(kHz)
0
c
Standard: Phonatlod vE'rsioY"l
Formant
.1
�-
- -- ------ -- -- -'0 0
M�n
'r/omt'n
F1 ,
F2 ,
Formant frequency data fran K . J. Kallail and F. W . Emanuel [ 19 84a ] and [ 1984b ] .
male
(b ) Whispering :
and F 3 of the sarre five vowels whispered and phonated by 15 adult
(squares ) and 15 adult fenale ( circles ) speakers of American English ( group mean data) .
Frequency data fran R . Schulman [ 1 985 ] .
( a) Shouting :
Fl' F2 ' and F 3 of the sarre ten vowels shouted and produced with m:.:x]erate
vocal effort ; individual data on each vowel produced by three adult male speakers of Swedish:
men) .
(fl
E
CII
...,
g
II)
'"
�
Q,
>
o
II)
.3
c:
�
"1:S
Logaritimically scaled characteristic frequencies of the
10
(kHz)
VE"rs ion
5
c:
Q,
0
"­
Q,
0..
+I
....
o
+I
'"
a
"1:S
§
"1:S
with different types of phonation :
( a and b ) :
2
100
150
200
fran ordinary lab-speech version ( horizontally ) .
produced
7
0
frE'quE'ncy
•
Standard:
Fo r mant
•
0
0
00
0
o
o� u-� 00
rJDf:b
§
o
- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Figure
-4.
0
4.
8.
12.
a
§
c:
Q,
0
"­
<11
0..
....­
....
o
+I
<h
"1:S
"1:S
If
we
data
want to utilize a power function to "normalize"
on
vowels
produced by a single speaker ,
formant
or in order
frequency
to
recognize
vowels autanatically , we encounter a problen : We have no a priori knowledge
of
the appropriate values of k 1 and p . Here , these constants have been
derived on the basis of data on several sets of vowels whose phonetic
quality was assumed to be identical ,
applicable
if the phonetiC quality of the vowels is in question .
that vowel quality is substantially influenced by Fo.
further ,
k1
rut this procedure is not irrmed iately
and/or the exponent p mISt,
therefore ,
We know ,
The factor
be regularly dependent on
FO .
Equation ( 3 ) does not describe this regularity .
Since equivalence in phonetic quality is defined by the perceiver ,
be
preferable to adopt a genuinely perceptual point of view in
the
relation
between phonetiC quality and characteristic
it
may
describing
frequencies
of
vowels . We should account for the fact that listeners are able to decide on
the
phonetiC quality of a vowel sound even without prior expousure to
other
the
vowels produced by the same speaker ,
and we would like to
any
describe
phonetiC quality of vowels in terms of such parameters which have
same
value
Peterson ,
whenever the phonetic quality of sane vowels is the same
1952 ] .
Syrdal [ 19 85 ] ,
this goal .
the
The
tonotopic approach followed by TraunmUlle r
Syrdal and Gopal [ 1 9 86 ] ,
DiBenedetto [ 19 87 ] ,
[ cf .
[ 19 81 ] ,
may lead
to
E\.lnd amental to this approach is the tonotopic representation of
speech sound spectra ,
hypothesized
that
characteristic
e.
the
g . , along the basilar membrane . Initially it was
tonotopic distances between
of a given vowel ,
might be invariant .
the
spectral
peaks ,
In gross approxima­
this was found to hold between speakers . For small and medium inter­
tion ,
peak
distances
than that between F1 and F2 in
vowelS ) the hypothesis was confirmed [ TraunmUller , 1981 ] .
Syrdal
( smaller
[ 19 85 ]
distances
and
subsets
tures .
A
In
front
particular ,
critical
3 . 5 Bark to dispartiate the set of American
of
inter-peak
English
vowels
waren , and children ( data fran Peterson and Barney , [ 1 952 ] )
sPJken by men ,
into
Syrdal and Gopal [ 1 986 ] observed
non-open
traditionally considered to share certain
similar
observation was made for the
distinctive
distinction
between
fea­
the
vowel-like consonants [ 1 ] and [ r ] [ Syrdal , 1 9 82 ] .
The
tonotopic
speakers ,
and
with
approach
suggests the same vowels
the same type of phonation ,
produced
by
to share an invariant pattern
it suggests a s�le relation to hold between the different
-
72
-
different
speakers .
Accord:ing to this approach,
ces
the consequences of vocal tract size differen­
J:etween speakers can J:e descriJ:ed very simply by a
uniform
tonotopic
translation of the spectral envelope of the auditory pattern of excitation .
In
spirit ,
and
this agrees with the " space pattern theory " proposed by
Kaj iyama [ 1941 ] ,
Chiba
rut ncm the description of this pattern :includes not
only the formant peaks rut , :in addition , also FO .
Figure 8 ( a to c ) displays the same data as those used :in Figure 6 ( a to c )
rut ncm scaled :in Bark .
Figure
8
can
:in
abscissa ,
Unlike the regression l:ines :in Figure 9 ,
J:e seen to follcm a course grossly
:in
parallel
those :in
with
the
agreement with the hypothesis of an :invariant tonotopic pat­
tern .
Most of the regression l:ines shown :in Figure 8 fit FO as well as the
formants although there are sane minor deviations : For k:indergarten chil­
dren , FO is J:elcm the regression l:ine and for adult waren it is above .
The regression l:ines shown :in Figure 8 run ,
hcmever , not quite strictly :in
parallel with the abscissa , and Equation ( 4 ) holds for their exact descrip­
tion , J:etween any speaker groups a and b .
(4)
In this equation , d O is the :intercept at Z a
the regresSion l:ine :in a plot of Zb vs Z a .
=
0 Bark , and c is the slope of
Values for d O and c are listed
:in Table 3 .
Equation
(4)
phonated
and shouted or whispered vcmels .
and
can also J:e used to descriJ:e the relation
c are also listed :in Table 3 .
t:inctly
J:elcm 1 . 0 .
fran
In these cases ,
the slopes c are
In J:etween-group canparisons among
consideration ,
normally
The correspond:ing values of
this slope does not deviate rrore than ± 0 . 0 3 fran 1 .
excluded
J:etween
dis­
speakers
hcmever , FO were
as is the case :in Fant I s set of data , the
deviation would J:e larger :in sane instances .
-
73
-
If,
Japanese
dO
.j>.
-....j
>
aD
+'
0
0
�
J:
S
0
<h
�
+'
-0
B
-0
CO
\../
B
:>l.
-2
-1
0
2
3
4
D
•
"
•
CD
•
m
•
..
CP
•
a
"'i
a
. .
(BaY'k>
m
m
... 0 ...... .
•
o
a
......,
_ . . .
..
... ..
...l.CP
a
•
u:
II
:
o
00
CD
FO
:. ...�
:
•
It
a
.�
•
..
CD
i
a
CD
•
o
o
:I
•
a
(BaY' k >
. CD m
.. �fo..
It
a
'i
a
Ch! ld'l'pn
AdolE>sc(>nts
Adul ts
to F3 CB-Y' Q teo
i'
•
CD
0
It
b:
......,
I
FO
IDIIJ
C
•
a
a
:I
C
SI
•
. .
.
C
..
..
tJ.
a
•
It
ce
m
m
•
II
uP
m
F3 CB-Y' 0 tE'
D
c
in
m
milb
•
kindergarten
children,
boys before maturation of voice ( age 12-14 years ) ,
maturation of voice ( age 12-14 years ) , and adult men .
( c)
wanen.
and kindergarten children ( age 4-5 years ) .
(b ) kindergarten children, girls ( age 12-14 years ) , and adult
wanen,
defined
boys
after
E\1j isaki et al.
Standard
•
•
....
c:
*'
ChildrE>n
PrE'-pubE'r ty
tJ.
Pos t-pubE>r ty c
Adul ts
m
�. tJ. . . � .. �8
C
Formant frequency data fran H .
( vertically ) plotted against actual value ( horizontally ) .
Regression line shown for each group.
value
( a) adult men , adult
[1970]
text.
dard
8 ( a to C ) :
to F3 CB-Y' 0 teo
5
II
l1li
0°
0
•
. .. . .
Critical band rates of Fa , F1 , F2 , and F 3 of the same five vONels of
Japanese produced by different groups of speakers ( group rrean data ) : Deviation fran a stan­
FO
Figure
o
;...
...g
.
G)
CD
IDOl
•
•
a
*'
:I
*'
..
.
. .
Ch ildr�n
'Wom(>n
M�n
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - _
Table 3 : Tonotopic translation dO of FO and of undiscriminated formants ( Fl
to F 3 ) . Mean translation of FO and translation corresponding to regression
lines
at 300 Hz,
in Figure 8 at 0 Bark ( intercept in �ation ( 4 ) ) ,
mean
uniform translation , and translation at 3000 Hz in Bark . Last colurm : Slope
c in �ation ( 4 ) . Same data as in Table 2 .
c
men
boys , mat . , 12-14 a
0 . 45
0 . 43
0 . 52
0 . 66
0 . 90
1 . 0 30
boys , �at . , 12-14 a
1 . 44
1 . 50
1 . 42
1 . 31
1 . 11
0 . 976
men
children , 4-5 a
2 . 02
2 . 52
2 . 55
2 . 60
2 . 69
1 . 0 11
women
girls , 12-14 a
0 . 08
0 . 36
0 . 31
0 . 22
0 . 11
0 . 9 84
women
children , 4-5 a
0 . 82
1 . 66
1 . 58
1 . 44
1 . 27
0 . 97 6
men
women
1 . 20
0 . 94
1 . 02
1 . 16
1 . 39
1 . 0 29
men
women
0 . 12
0 . 33
0 . 79
1 . 20
1 . 069
1 . 56
1 . 26
0 . 62
0 . 02
0 . 902
voiced whispered (men)
1 . 78
1 . 42
0 . 62
-0 . 07
0 . 882
voiced whispered ( women )
1 . 40
1 . 13
0 . 40
0 . 01
0 . 9 12
men
[ Fant , 1975 ]
normal shouted
( men )
*
1 . 72
INVARIANT OJES
According to the power-function approach,
scribed
by
�ation ( 3 ) ,
the same kind of
appears to hold for both
relation ,
between- and
de­
within­
speaker variation . According to the tonotopic approach, these relations are
fundamentally
different
in character :
between speaker variation is
cribed by a tonotopic translation while the kinds of within speaker
tion
des­
varia­
discussed above are described by a tonotopic compression or expansion
of the auditory pattern of excitation . on the basis of the latter approach ,
we can see several analogies between auditory perception of phonetic quali­
ty and visual perception of shape ,
of
distance
e.
g . , of graphic symbols . The effects
and orientation with respect to the line
-
75
-
of
sight ,
on
the
Figure 9 : Tonotopic distance between F3 and
F0 - a negative measure of " elevation" ,
11.0
plotted against critical band rate of F 3 a ( negative ) correlate to speaker size .
o
N
13 . 0
Mean
speakers of Japanese :
I
('f) 1 4 . 0
Speaker groups , sym­
ools , and data source as aoove . Data points
N
1 5. 0
connected in sense of ontogenetic
19. 0
17.0
1&. 0
have
ment
1 5. 0
( Bar k )
Z3
We
values plotted for each group of five
seen
in each sex .
develop­
Data on Swedish
spoken
( N ) and shouted ( S ) vowels also shown .
that Equation ( 2 ) neutralizes
spectral
canpressions
with
respect to the distance between a reference point located at 15 . 3 Bark
and
another
one at 3 . 2 Bark aoove Z O ' If we interpret the reference point at
Bark ( Zh ) not as fixed in absolute terms , rut allow it to follow the
15 . 3
higher
formants in natural vowels ,
which ,
without
tions .
Equation ( 5 ) describes the phonetiC pararreters involving
and
F2
we can write a more general
further rrodification ,
proper .
also neutralizes spectral
The two reference points may be interpreted
as
equation ,
transla­
F2 ' ,
F1 '
expected
average positions of Z I and of Z 3 ' respectively .
Zn - ( Z O
In -
3.2)
(5)
Zh - ( Z O
With
ZI '
aoove .
the
+
+
3.2)
we
obtain I I ' a measure of vowel openness , already mentioned
Within the two reference points , Equation ( 5 ) agrees exactly with
assumption that paralinguistic spectral rrodifications be linear trans­
lations
and/or
canpressions of the auditory
spectrum ,
as
described
by
Equation ( 3 ) .
The
problem of between-speaker variation in the description of vowels
often
been
treated
fuj isaki and Nakamura ,
which
can
be
with various "normalization"
1969 ;
Wakita ,
1977 ;
pardigms
Disner ,
[ Fant ,
has
1959 ;
1 9 80 ; Suani , 1984 ] ,
used to " correct " formant frequency data to
conform
to
a
standard vocal tract . Such a normalization can be imagined to take place in
- 76
-
visual
pattern of excitation appear to be neutralized by application of an
proj ective geanetry .
inverse
Similar processes appear to be effective
in
auditory perception of phonetic quality : The effects of variations in vocal
effort are analogous to those of variations in tilt with respect to a plane
orthogonal to the line of sight ,
both resulting in a canpression or expan­
sion of a spatial dimension of the proximal stimulus . The effects of variaTranslations , or rotations
tions in vocal tract size have other analogies :
within
a plane orthogonal to the line of sight ,
all
leaving the
relative
locations of any characteristic details unaffected .
Since variations in vocal effort ,
intonation ,
and phonation do not appre­
ciably affect F 3 and the higher formant frequencies , these provide close to
invariant correlates to speaker s ize . The tonotopic position of these
formants
vocal
is ,
by
tract .
protrusion .
dimension
and large ,
only to a minor extent does this length vary also
This
constitutes
there
speakers
quality ,
quality
distinctive
and involving the possible canpression of spectra .
lip
physical
dis­
The present analysis of data has further
is another variable of personal
the
with
the marginal phonetiC use of this
which mainly functions as a variable of personal
tinctive between speakers .
that
given by the speaker specific length of
shown
within
This variable
can be expressed by the tonotopic distance between the higher formants
and
FO . I have tentatively used the term " elevation" [ TraunrnUller , 1987 ]
designate this dimension of variation in order to cover the elevation
to
of
the low frequency part of the spectrum irrespective of its appearance as
a
consequence of increased vocal effort or of whispering , or due to any other
reason .
9 shows the mean Z 3 ( indicating tonotopic translation ) , correlated
speaker size , and the mean distance Z 3 - Zo ( indicating tonotopic
Figure
with
canpression ) ,
correlated with vocal effort or " elevation" in
general ,
in
the
whole set of Japanese vowels as produced by different speaker
groups .
The
figure
shouted
also shows the corresponding data for the normal
and
Swedish vowels . Although Figure 9 shows that " elevation" is also , marginal­
ly ,
involved
reflect
after
in between-speaker variations ,
a psychological reality .
maturation
this dichotany is likely
The speech of boys j ust before and
of their voice may ,
e.
g. ,
-
77 -
just
be perceived to differ
" elevation" , or " shoutiness " , as suggested by Figure 9 .
to
in
human
speech perception .
approach
is ,
however ,
The solution proposed by the
conceptually different .
theory of direct perception [ Gibson ,
of
present
tonotopic
It is more in line with a
1 9 6 6 ] and it involves the calculation
psychoacoustic parameters In . Any phonetic II templates II of
stored in our brains are asS\.ID1Erl to be free of transmittal and
invariant
vowels
personal , paralinguistic quality , as is the case with the In . Subsequently ,
a nonnalization can only take place in the perception of phonetic quality
if there are differences between the phonetic systems of speaker and liste­
ner .
When
own ,
rut which we are not very familiar with , we probably use serre kind of
we listen to serrebody speaking a dialect which is close to
our
nonnalization or correspondence rules in order to understand .
While
we have seen that the fonnant frequency differences between
speaker
groups can be described by the power-function expressed in Equation ( 3 )
by
or
a tonotopic translation slightly modified by a tonotopic compression or
expansion , none of these transfonnations captures the fanale-male differen­
ces ,
observed
by
Fant [ 1 975 ] and further analysed by
Ananthabadmanabha [ 1984 ] and TraunmUller [ 19 84 ] ,
a
discrepancy in detail ,
Nordstran
[ 19 7 7 ] ,
completely . There remains
which is of the same kind in the
tonotopic
ap­
proach as in the power-function approach .
The
female-male
difference in log ( Fn ) and in Zn in Fant ' s [ 1975 ] set of
data is plotted against the male values in Figures l O a and l O b , respective­
ly .
Separate regression lines are shown for each fonnant in addition to an
overall regression line .
It can be seen that the fenale-male difference in
Fl is highly correlated with Fl ( Significant at p < 0 . 01 ) . The same kind of
interrelation holds for F2 . As for F 3 ' there is a barely significant ( p <
0 . 1 ) negative correlation . The slope of the regression lines for Fl as well
for F2 is much steeper than that of the overall regression line . This
makes female vowels stand out as clearly more peripheral than male vowels
as
in any of our approaches . There is only one potential vowel , in the central
region
scribed
of
the vowel space ,
exactly
for which the fenale-male difference
is
by the overall regression lines in accordance with
de­
Equa­
tions ( 3 ) or ( 4 ) . Table 4 lists the constants descriptive of the regression
lines for Fl and F2 in the Figures l O a and lO b .
-
78
-
I.D
-...J
a.
D..
S-
�
a.
(.)
"0
+I
;;
�
0
8
-.:S
-.:S
3.
0
�
1 20
1 00 I-
.1
Men
( sp o k en )
fr E' q u E' n c )I
S t an d ar d :
Fo r mant
.1
a
�
E
o
+I
�
'"
a.
�
a.
>
o
lL.
a.
0
E
a.
.....
0
E
a.
'-/
CD
5
,...
.::I-
-1 .
0
1.
2•
0
U
Ma l E'
5
10
f o r m an t C B -r a b
( B ar k >
15
20
b
these languages .
Separate regression lines fitted to the data for each
formant
( whole­
( b ) Formant frequencies expressed in a tonotopic measure ( Bark ) .
( a) Formant frequencies expressed in a logaritlmic measure such as sanitones .
drawn lines ) . Overall regression line fitted to the three formants also shown ( dashed ) .
of
Figure 10 ( a and b ) :
Fanale-male differences ( vertically ) plotted against male values of FI ,
and F 3 in vowels ( horizontaly ) . Data represent mean formant frequencies fran a sample of
F2 ,
six languages [ Fant , 1 9 75 ] . The twelve vowels chosen are those represented in at least three
-3.
£. .
140 "
.
-.:S
.....
'"
Table
4:
Frequency scale factors and exponents ( Equation 3 ) and
band rate translation ,
of
intercepts and slopes ( Equation 4 ) for
female formant frequency values fran male data .
each
formant .
critical
calculation
Separate analysis
for
Listed values based on formant frequencies observed in
six
European languages [ Fant , 1975 ] .
F2
Fl
uniform scale factor
1 . 11 6
1 . 140
scale factor kl at 1 HZ ( Equation 3 )
exponent p in Equation ( 3 )
0 . 362
0 . 37 3
1 . 18 6
1 . 155
+
uniform translation in Bark
intercept dFO at 0 Bark ( Equation 4 )
slope c in Equation ( 4 )
+
0 . 50 7
F3
1 . 16 8
+
0 . 855
- 0 . 744
- 0 . 936
1 . 280
1 . 170
1 . 018
Using the constants listed in Tables 2 and 3 , the transformations described
by
Equations ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) can be implemented without identification of
formants ,
the
e . g . , by an autanatic analysis and a following resynthesis with
transformed parameters ,
this
whereby only F0 has to be rescaled separately . In
case the spectra are treated holistically . This would be canpatible
with
non-formant approaches to the description of vowel spectra ,
cated by Bladon [ 19 82 ] .
as advo­
Figures l O a and l O b show , however , that a separate
treabnent
of the formants F1 and F2 ' using the Equations ( 3 ) or ( 4 ) with
the constants listed in Table 4 leads to a considerably more exact descrip­
tion of the female/male differences .
In this case ,
distinct role and has to be identified by number ,
reliably with an autanatic procedure .
and
which is difficult to do
Since the separate treatement of
F2 allows a sufficiently exact calculation of female formant
cies if male formant frequencies are known ,
with
each formant plays its
advantage ,
tics ,
to
frequen­
this can , however , be utilized
together with a description of voice source
generate
F1
characteris­
female speech by formant synthesis on the basis
of
a
description of male speech .
Should
we
interprete male vowels as pale versions of
female
vowels
as exagerated versions of male vowels ,
-
80
-
female
vowels ,
or is our
or
analysis
insufficient
so far?
In order to
answe
r this question ,
we
would have
check whether the discrepancy is conditioned by sane factor which is
to
reco­
verable fran the acoustic signal and not exclusively linked to speaker sex .
perceived degree of opermess in vowels has been shown to be a function
The
of F1 and FO . If other factors are negligible , the female-male discrepancy
in the acoustic data is likely to reflect a discrepancy in phonetic quality
unless it can be shown to be conditioned by F0 ' regardless of speaker sex .
As
for
Fl '
there are sane data which show that
than
peripheral
wanen '
s vowels
are
more
men ' s even if they are produced with the same
FO [ Bladon
1982 : Figure 4 ] . At FO approx . 160 Hz, wanen ' s vowels have distinctly more
extrene F1 s , as canpared with the sarne intended vowels produced by men .
This discrepancy i s as large a s that in Fant ' s set of data . Thus , the wide
female
energes
range
in F1 can not be explained as a function of FO . This also
clearly fran the Japanese data . In Figure 1 1 , the speaker group
specific dispersion in Z 1 ( standard deviation between mean values for each
vowel ) is plotted against Z o for each speaker group . This figure shows that
speakers with an FO similar to that of wanen ( girls , and boys j ust before
maturation of voice ) do not share the wide F1 range in that group , confir­
ming that it can not be explained as a function of F0 ' although the F1
range is similarly expanded in kindergarten children .
'" 2 . 0
�
e
CD
v
1.9
....
1.8
1=
o
tI>
s-
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
""
Po
tI>
Figure 1 1 : Dispersion in F1 between the mean
Japanese vowels of six physiologically dif­
.- 1 . 7
-0
§
E
s-
o
....
-oJ
tI>
l-
....
L1..
1 . e.
ferent
of
speakers ,
expressed
as
critical band rate standard deviation , ( ver­
1.5
1.4
groups
tically )
. . . . . .
..
.. . . . . . _ _ . .. . . .
. . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . ..
Symbols
points
F un d a ml? n t a l p i t c n
( Bar k )
plotted against FO ( horizontally ) .
and source of data as above . Data
connected
in sense
development in each sex .
-
81
-
of
ontogenetic
In Figure 12 ,
the dispersions of Z l '
Z2 '
and Z 3 ' are plotted against the
mean Z 3 ' for each group . This figure shows a correlation between. Z 3 and the
dispersion for each formant , rut the data on waren ' s vowels clearly stick.
out fran the general trend ,
reasons
tions
to
of
not only in Z l .
There are ,
thus ,
believe that the phonetic quality of waren ' s and men ' s
the same vowel phonenes is not precisely the same .
difference similar to that between. more and less explicit
Such a difference in behavior might ,
or sociological factors .
difference
likely
There
is
a
pronounciations .
in principle , be due to physiological
to represent a "universal " of linguistic behavior ,
On
to have a physiological cause .
the other hand ,
speaker by speaker ,
it
appears
a more detailed
revealed an especially
discrepancy in the case of lui which the data suggest
pronounced
rendi­
Since the present study suggests this sex-related
analysis of the Japanese data ,
been
convincing
to
have
produced with lip rounding by two of the five adult waren rut by none
of the other 25 speakers . These cases are supportive of the argument that a
sociological factor is also involved .
�
t
(!)
'"
s:
o
If)
S<II
s:L
If)
. ....
3.0
2.5
2. 0
Figure
between.
-0 ! . 5
. ...
<II
.oJ
d
sI
(!)
U
.5
�
0
8
E
LL
kers ,
different
F3
of
six
groups of
spea­
expressed as critical band rate stan­
critical
Symbols
14
points
15
f o r man t C B -r a t �
( Bar k )
band
rate of
F3
( horizontally ) .
and source of data as
connected
in sense
above .
of
Data
ontogenetic
development in each sex .
difference similar to that between. waren and men has also been shown
exist between. more and less stressed vowels [Koopnans - van
Christov ,
the
e.
and
dard deviation , ( vertically ) plotted against
Th ir d
A
Dispersion in F1 , F2 ,
the mean Japanese vowels
physiologically
! .0
.oJ
12 :
1987 ] .
In this case there may ,
Beinum,
to
1980 ;
in addition , be a difference of
kind we found between. vowels produced with more and less vocal effort ,
g. ,
in
the
angrily stressed vowels of Williams and
Stevens
Degree of peripheralness has also been shown to be a sufficient
-
82
-
[ 19 72 ] .
perceptual
cue to stress [Rietveld et al , 1 9 87 ] .
Not
considering the data for waren ,
Figure 1 2 shows a sizable increase in
the range of Z 3 variation with increasing age . The between-vowel variation
in Z 3 aroong kindergarten children is barely a third of that in adults .
still younger children , below 2 years of age , have a relatively small range
of variation in F2 [ Buhr , 1980 ; Bickley , 1 9 8 3 ] . The ability to use varia­
tions in F2 , reflecting a front-back rrovanent of the tongue appears to be
aquired later than the ability to vary Fl '
reflecting j aw-rrovanent . As for
variation in F3 , the present analysis appears to show that speakers do not
attain full control of it before adolescence .
It
has
been
observed previously that the simple
tonotopic
approach
is
slightly
in conflict with observational data insofar as a change in FO has
alrros t negligible effects on the perceived openness of vowels as long as FO
<
Hz.
150
This
has
been
interpreted
as
an
" end
of
scale
effect"
It has been argued that an FO decrease below 150 Hz
might not affect the tonotopic representation of spectra because of audito­
[ TraunmUller ,
ry
1981 ] .
integration
Lublinskaya
question ,
over roughly 3 . 5 Bark ,
[ 197 9 ] .
first reported by
Chistovich
This idea has subsequently been supported ,
and interpreted differently [ TraunmUller ,
1981 ,
p1t
1982 ;
and
into
Bladon ,
1983 ; Schwarz and Escudier , 1 9 87 ] . Syrdal and Gopal [ 19 8 6 ] found the end of
scale
Barney ' s
effect to be negligible for their analysis of Peterson and
[ 1952 ] data .
increased
Now it is necessary to reexamine this hypothesis ,
peripheralness
simply be done by ,
of waren ' s vowels also into
actually ,
taking the
account .
This
can
leaving overall variations in peripheralness
out of the account , i . e . , by considering the vowel space centroids of each
speaker instead of the individual vowels .
each
To this end ,
the mean values of
characteristic log ( f ) or z have been calculated for each of our spea­
kers of Japanese and they are plotted in Figures 13a and 1 3b as a
function
of log ( FO ) and Z O ' respectively .
Figure
1 3 shows that in none of our approaches do the formant
increase
frequencies
strictly
linearly with FO . In the power-function approach, we
would not even expect this , rut in the tonotopic approach , the discrepancy ,
quite
clearly visible in the case of Fl , needs an explanation . In part ,
this discrepancy is in line with the previous observation that vowel quali­
ty
is
not greatly affected by F0 if it is within ( or below )
-
83
-
the
typical
adult male Fo -range . Figure 1 3b shows , however , also that there is a dis­
crepancy in the opposite direction above the typical adult female Fo -range .
This part of the discrepancy is not accounted for by spectral integration
as
suggested
previously .
In the frequency range 250
<
<
FO
Hz,
350
appears to influence phonetic quality to a larger extent than predicted
the
hypothesis that perceived phonetic openness is given by the
FO
by
tonotopic
distance between Fl and FO . In this respect , the Japanese data agree with
the American English data of Peterson and Barney [ cf . TraunmUller , 1984 ] ,
and
also
1981 ] .
to
with the result of a p..1rely perceptual experiment
[ TraunmUl.ler ,
In this particular range of FO ' perceived phonetic openness appears
given by FI /FO ( or log ( Fl ) - log ( FO ) ' as suggested by Bladon
be
[ 19 82 ] .
4.0
. .
3.5
J:
: 3
.-..
...,
b>
0
2
3.0
:1
2.5
. .
S
. .
. .
. . . . . .
. .
. . . . . .
20
. .,
�s
1
�2
2
2J�/
'Z
1
1
1
1 (1
1
11
11
Figure
13
log
&
;1
1
2. 4
(FO)
( a and b ) :
. .
. .
...,
N
2. 5
:
:
.
iI
2 �22
1
1
�
111
I
11 ::
Z
:
:
'
'
,
,
'
'
'
'
,
,
'
0
a
.
�
2221
10
5
. .
,� �
ssSs
'"
0
2. 2
. .
2
2. 0
2. 0
. _ _
:
15
a3
sF § �
2 2 11
1
. . . . . . . .
. . . .
z
'
. . . . . . ,
. . . .
2
3
(FO)
4
vowel-space centroids for 30 speakers of
b
Japanese .
Three formants plotted against fundamental . Source of data as above .
( a ) : Characteristic frequencies expressed in a logari thnic measure .
(b) :
Characteristic
frequencies
expressed in a tonotopic
measure .
culated low-frequency end of spectral pattern ( Equation 6 ) shown by
Cal­
curved
line .
This
phenanenon may perhaps be understood as follows :
( below
150
Hz) ,
characterizing
If F0 is very low
the ear considers the envelope of the spectral pattern
vowels
to
begin right at the beginning of
-
84
-
the
tonotopic
If F0 is very high ( above 300 Hz) , the ear is not
capable to bridge the large spectral gap below FO and , therefore , considers
scale
( at
0 Bark ) .
envelope to begin at FO . In the range of 150 Hz < FO < 350 Hz, then ,
quite a drastic transition between these two interpretations will result .
the
A similar limitation to spectral envelope detection , concerning the maximal
spacing
of partials acceptable for the auditory extraction of F1 has been
observed previously [ Traunnilller , 1981 ] . The present suggestion differs
fran
the previous one in that the problem is now seen as one
envelope
detection instead of spectral integration .
of
spectral
This explanation does
not
preclude the calculation of the tonotopic distance between F 3 and F0 '
suggested to be invariant between speakers , given equality in phonation and
vocal effort .
accordance
A low-freqyency endpoint ,
Z OO ' of the spectral envelope , in
with the present explanation ,
can be calculated with
Equation
(6) :
Z oo
=
The
Zo l C l
+
(6)
exp [ 2 . 5 ( 2 . 5 - Z O ) ] }
constants in equation ( 6 ) were arrived at by attenpting to
keep
con­
stant the spectreal distance between Z OO and the mean Z I of our speakers of
Japanese . This was done by hand-craft , i . e . , better approximations may
exist . The calculated Z OO is shown in Figure 1 3b .
The success of the present attenpt to remove between-speaker variation fran
the description of vowels can be appreciated by canparing a plotting of the
1970 ] in Z I vs Z 2 space ( Fi­
gure 14 ) with a plotting of the same data in terms of the two parameters I I
individual Japanese vowels [ E\.lj isaki et al . ,
and
size
12 ,
suggested
and
" backness "
to be invariant with respect to variations in
"elevation" ( Figure 15 ) .
I I reflects
as well as "lip protrusion" ,
oral "depth" in TraunmUller [ 1 9 87 ] .
substituted for Z o in Equation ( 5 ) .
vowel
openne ss ,
speaker
and
12
with a cover term referred to
as
In calculating I I and 1 2 , Z OO has been
The upper reference value needed in Equation ( 5 ) can be estimated either by
using for each speaker his mean F 3 - not inherent in the particular segment
- or to use the F3 of each particular vowel . In the latter case , we discard
sane phonetiC information .
perception ,
it
If there is a similar procedure in human speech
is likely to be based on the formants above
very little phonetiC information in vowels .
-
85
-
F3 ,
carrying
Such data are , however , not at
our
disposal and for Figure 15 ,
F 3 has been chosen as the upper reference
point . The vCMels can be seen to aggregate in five distinct clusters . A few
tokens still appear to be wrongly placed .
Probably these represent
errors
carrnitted s anewhere in the chain of data aquisition .
20 -
15
N
u..
-
I
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
:
I
..
.. ..
. . . . . . . . . .
..
I
. . . . .
. ..
I
. .
.. .. . . . . .. .. .�
:
:
-
-
Figure 14 :
10 -
Tonotopically scaled F1
( horizontally ) and F2 ( vertically )
: -
in
the five Japanese
duced
5 1-
:. . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .
I
o
I
5
Fl
( B ar k )
. . . . . .
I
10
:
I
15
-
vCMels
pro­
by physiologically different
speakers .
Formant frequency
as above ,
fran H .
data ,
E\.lj isaki et al .
[ 19 70 ] .
1.2
1.0
N
if
.8
i
i
, \.
Figure 15 :
i "Jl.'f� : i
iii
i
Phonetic ,
paralinguis­
.
it
tically
:
invariant
parameters
I1
( related with vCMel openness , hori­
.....
. E.
zontally )
.4
culated
" oral
and
depth" ,
I2
( related
vertically ) ,
with
cal-
according to Equations ( 5 )
and ( 6 ) in the five Japanese vCMels
.2
produced by physiologically
-.4
-.2
o
I1
.2
.4
. f,
rent
speakers .
Formant
data same as in Figure 14 .
-
86
-
diffe­
frequency
SUMMARY
We
have seen that there are two types of spectral envelope transformations
which
whithin
wide lllnits do not affect the phonetic quality
of
vowels :
Translations and linear canpressions/expansions . variations in speaker size
and in vocal effort ,
whispered
these
vowels
two
without
can be described or elllninated fran a
types of transformation applied to
discrllnination
essentially
contains
apply .
as well as the spectral difference between voiced and
to
between
vowel quality .
the
description
spectra
the several spectral
holistically ,
peaks
We have also seen that the
with
contributing
speech
signal
information concerning the appropriate type of transformation
to
In voiced speech segments , this information is carried by F0 and by
the formants above F2 .
The higher formant frequencies correlate ( negative­
ly ) with speaker size ,
and the tonotopic distance between the higher
for­
mants and F0 correlates ( negatively ) with vocal effort .
The
difference
between vowels produced by adult waren ,
those produced by other speakers ,
can ,
however ,
as canpared
not be described
with
holis­
tically , but it requires the formants to be treated separately . It has been
shown
that
vowels
produced by adult waren tend to be
phonetically
more
explicite than those of other speakers .
The investigation of the perceptual role of spectral transformations of the
abovenentioned
kind presupposes an adequate scaling of pitch .
While
sane
arguments in favour of a tonotopic approach on the basis of a critical band
rate
scale
variation
have been p.lt forward ,
we have seen that
the
paralinguistic
in vowel formant frequencies can also be described on the
basis
of a logarithnic scale of frequency .
This
research
has been supported by a grant
fran
HSFR ,
Council for Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences .
-
87 -
the
Swedish
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Traunrrill.ler ,
Schouten ,
H. :
Sane
psychophysics
of
aspects
of the sound of
Speech
perception ,
pp .
speech
sounds ;
29 3 - 305
in
( Nij hoff ,
Dordrecht 1987 ) .
Traunrrill.ler ,
H. ;
Lacerda ,
F. :
perceptual relativity in two-formant
vowels . Speech Ccmn §.: 14 3-157 ( 19 87 ) .
.
Wakita ,
application
H. :
Normalization
of vowels by vocal tract length
to vowel identification .
IEEE Trans .
Acoust .
and
Speech
its
Signal
Proc . , ASSP-25 , pp . 183-192 ( 19 77 ) .
Williams ,
C . E . ; Stevens , K . N . : EInotions and speech : Sane acoustical
correlates . J . Acoust . Soc . Am . 52 : 1 2 3 8-1250 ( 1 97 2 ) .
Zhang ,
J. :
The
intrinsic
fund amental frequency of vowels
effect of speech rrodes on formants .
Proc .
XIth ICPhS ,
and
the
Vol 3 , pp . 390-393
( 1 987 ) .
Zhukov ,
S.
Ya . ;
Chistovich ,
L.
A . : perceptual parameters of front
vowels . Speech Ccmn !: 267-27 3 ( 19 85 ) .
.
Zwicker ,
E. :
Zur unterteilung des horbaren Frequenzbereiches in Fre­
quenzgruppen . Acustica 10 : 185 ( 1 9 60 ) .
-
92
-
ANALYTICAL EXPRESSIONS EDR THE 'IONOIDPIC SENSORY SCALE
Harbrut TraunmUlle r
1. Introduction
Two
processes
are
generally assumed to
contriblte
to
auditory
frequency resolution. First, the hearing systan is capable of performing
an "oscillographic" analysis of the set of neural signals originating in
the
This
cochlea.
process is limited to frequencies which can be
solved in the pattern of neural responses.
While single neurons are not
to fire rrore frequently than 500 times per second even
likely
stimulus
intensites,
re­
at
high
frequencies between 0.5 and 1.5 kHz can still
be
handled in the tanporal danain, albeit less efficiently, on the basis of
the
signals fran a large number of neurons.
tions
The capability and limita­
of a frequency analysis in the tanporal danain
vividly
by
are
deronstrated
cochlear implant patients whose sole auditory inp..1t
is
an
undifferentiated electrical stimulation of the auditory nerve.
The
sOillld
second process covers the whole auditory frequency range. Any
entering
analysis,
can
be
a normal functioning cochlea is subj ect to
a
spectral
resulting in a frequency-to-place transformation. The cochlea
regarded as a bank of filters whose outp..1ts are
topically,
ordered
tono­
with the filters closest to the base responding maximally to
the highest frequencies,
and those closest to the apex responding maxi­
mally to the looest frequencies. The tonotopic order is further knCMn to
be maintained in the structure of the neural network at higher levels in
the hearing systan.
Auditory
"equivalent
quency
frequency
selectivity can be described in terms
rectangular bandwidth" (ERB) as a function
of stimulation [1].
resolution
of
of
the
center-fre­
The two processes contriblting to frequency
are not separated in the definition and measurement
of
the
ERB. Consequently, the ERB, or ERB- rate should not be taken as a measure
of the tonotopic scale.
A quantity related to the ERB, though not identical with it, is the
classical "critical bandwidth" (CB) [8]. Measurement of the CB typically
Different summation rules have
involves loudness summa tion exper�ts.
been
fOillld
frequency
to hold for auditory stimuli,
depending on
whether
canponents are separated by rrore or less than the CB.
-
93
-
their
The CB
the
and
ERE
have been found to be
center-frequencies
discrepancy,
above
shown
500 Hz.
in Fig.
1.
proportional
and
equivalent
For lower frequencies,
there
for
is
a
the ERE decreases with
In this range,
decreasing center-frequency, while the CB remains close to constant. The
discrepancy
can
be
explained by the reasonable
assumption
that
SlID1Tlation
analysis within the temporal danain is irrelevant to loudness
down
frequencies where loudness variations becane audible as
to
The
discrepancy indicates,
contritutes
on the other hand,
that temporal
substantially to frequency resolution for low
the
Consequently,
resolution,
tut
CB
may
be taken as a measure of
such.
analysis
frequencies.
should not be taken as a measure
CB-rate
the
of
frequency
the
tonotopic
sensory scale.
2), the CB has been chosen
In the familiar CB-rate scale (see Fig.
to
as a natural unit of the tonotopic
serve
values
by Zwicker [7 ] in form of a table.
applied
tion.
rrost of these applications,
the
instead
of a table.
been
have
speech
percep­
it would be rrore convenient
between z and f specified in form
relation
z
Standard
The CB-rate scale has been
extensively in research on psychoacoustics and
For
have
scale.
the relation between frequency f and CB-rate
for
proposed
sensory
of
an
to
equation
Several equations which approx�ate the tatulated
values have also been p..1blished [2,
4,
5,
9].
In the following,
the
error functions of these equations will be canpared.
Recent studies of speech sounds suggest that the tonotopic
ces
distan­
(CB-rate differences) between praninent peaks in their spectra
fund amental
cally,
it
forman ts
to the perception of their phonetic quality.
has
been suggested that the spectral peaks
are
More specifi­
shaped
by
the
and the fundamen tal have the same relative tonotopic locations
in linguistically identical vowels uttered by speakers of different ages
and
sex
[3,
5,
6] .
While differences in speaker size appear
reflected in a tonotopic translation of the spectral peaks,
to
be
differences
in vocal effort appear to be reflected in a linear tonotopic canpression
/ expansion [6].
In order to test these hypotheses,
both in theory and
by speech synthesis, CB-rate differences must be accurately calculated.
OUr
requiremen ts include that the function have a
s�le
inverse
and that it be accurate preferably to within ± 0. 05 Bark in the range of
essential vowel formant frequencies of
rigorous
cla�
men,
wanen ,
and children.
for accuracy prevents the introduction of any
error in addition to that inherent in the table [7 ].
-
94
-
This
evitable
\.0
lJ1
1.5
t
2.0
2.0
by
=
.... ..
+ + +++++
#/
.p-+
....+
++
+
+
++
++
..
.
:4
EtIuivalent
2.5
3.5
4.0
[1]
50
100
and
Zwicker 's
(curve),
according to
Glasberg
bandwidth (CB),
Moore and
-6 2
-2
6.23 10
f + 9.339 10
f + 28.52,
..c
.,.J
"d
CO
I
'V
,....,
N
-0
s::
o
CO
200 "3
500
1000
2000
rectangular bandwidth (ERE),
1 g( f)
3.0
,
1
. .....' ;
+�
... ..
. . ..
... .........
1
.......................... ...................................................... ........ ..
+t-+
+++
. .
........ .. ....
+... .
+++
. ..
1
______
10
table [7 ] (marks), as a function of frequency.
critical
given
B
1
+++
according to the fornula
1.
1
Frequency f (kHz)
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
�
:
i
i
i
i
1
0.2
.··············· ..······ ····. · · ··..·················. . .
.
i;
i
1
1
i
l
i
;
:
I
,
r
2.5
Fig.
CO
'V
b'I
,....,
3.0
3.5
1
0.1
ra
I
I
10
L�
.
.
.
2.5
.. . " ....
Critical-band
. .. ..
.. ... .
. .
rate
1 9 ( f)
3.0
. ....
.. ... ..
4.0
"
z as a function
3.5
.. .
.... . ... .. ;
i
:
!
/
____
//
,/'
//
/
2.0
2.
I
FrE>quE>ncy f (kHz)
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
r·····················································......................................................·········1
1
0.2
of
[7 ]. The curve corresponds to eq. (6).
frequency f. H+H-rnarks represent data fran Zwicker
a
G
12
Fig.
�
U
-+oJ
0
u
1
"d
s::
0
.Q
0
�
<II
-+oJ
N
'V
'0
CO
�
,....,
24
0.1
1
2. Analytical expressions
2.1 Expressions for critical-band rate
the relation between f and z is linear for
In rough approximation,
f
<
500 Hz (z .. f/l00) and logarithnic for higher
frequencies.
Fig.
the error functions of two logarithnic approximations to the
shows
3
CB­
scale. One of these, eq. (1), has been suggested by Zwicker and Terhardt
[9]. It gives values that agree with the tahllated ones to within ± 0. 25
Bark in the range
0. 6
<
f
<
7 . 2 kHz
.
The other approximation, eq. (2),
our stricter standards of no more than ± 0. 05 Bark
satisfies
deviation
at the cost of a reduction in the range of validity, to within 1. 0
3. 6 kHz
In
<
f
<
.
z
=
14. 2 19 (f/l000) + 8. 7
(1),
z
=
6. 57 8 In (f) - 36. 99
(2),
these
and
in all the follONing equations,
frequency f
is
to
be
expressed in Hz and CB-rate z in CB-units (Bark).
A mathematical
function that is linear at one extreme
and
loga­
the sinus-hyperbolicus function, has been
ritlmic at the other extreme,
used by Tj arov [4], eq. (3), and by Schroeder [2], eq. (4), to calculate
CB-rate. The error functions of both equations are shawn in Fig. 4.
f
=
z
=
f
=
z
=
600 sinh (z/6. 7 ) + 20
(3),
1/2
2
6. 7 In{[ (f-20)1600]) + { [ (f-20)/600] + 1]
)}
(inverse).
650 sinh (z/ 7 )
(4),
1/2
2
7 In{ (fI650) + [ (f/650) + 1]
}
(inverse).
As canpared with the tahllated values, Tj arov 's equation (3) is accurate
to
within +0. 03 -0. 28 Bark for f
to
within
enough
± 0.13 Bark for f
<
<
4. 5 kHz and Schroeder's equation (4)
4.0 kHz
These equations
.
are
accurate
for sane applications in which frequency canponents above 4
may be neglected,
as they are in sane systans of telephonic
tion.
-
96
-
kHz
camun ica­
Approximations
achieved
in
functions .
a
covering the whole auditory frequency range can
various ways by appropriate combinations
of
be
mathematical
For the roost part, however, this yields equations which lack
The roost aCOlrate of the equations given by
simple inverse.
zwicker
and Terhardt [9],
z
is
2
13 atn (0. 0007 6 f) + 3. 5 atn (f/7 500)
=
of
this kind.
(5) ,
It agrees with the table to within +0. 20 -0. 25
over the whole range of auditory perception (see Fig.
Bark
5). The waiviness
of the error function tells us, however, that there is roam for improve­
ment. The equation also clearly falls short of our standards. If we want
to compare the tonotopic distances between two pairs of spectral
for
example,
we
peaks,
might obtain an error of up to 0. 9 Bark within
these
limits.
An approximation that has a simple inverse and meets our
is
achieved
by
considering z to be related to log (f)
by
standards
a
logistic
function,
also known as "growth mrve". Such an approximation, eq. (6),
has
proposed by Traunmillle r [5].
been
Its error function is shown
in
Fig. 6.
z
=
[26. 81 f/ (1960 + f)] - 0. 53
f
=
1960 (z + 0. 53)/ (26. 28
(6),
(inverse).
z)
-
The values obtained with eq. (6) deviate fran the tal::ulated ones by less
than ± 0. 05 Bark for 0. 2 < f < 6. 7 kHz .
At the low-frequency end of the scale, the deviation fran the table
[7 ]
sums up to -0. 53 Bark for f
=
0 Hz (-0. 26 Bark for f
=
20 Hz).
At
least in part, this deviation is due to biased rounding of the bandwidth
values in Zwicker 's table [7 ] .
For frequencies below 400 Hz,
the stan­
dard width of the critical band was set uniformly equal to 100 Hz.
appears
to
relation z
=
have been done in order to obtain the
f/l00.
said
simple
The original bandwidth data [8] indicate B .. 90 Hz
for the lower frequencies in that range.
for
mnemonically
This
The values listed in the table
f < 100 Hz are partimlarly questionable because they can hardly be
to
be based on any reliable
experimental
evidence.
Eq. (6)
may
represent the tonotopic scale well enough down to the lowest frequencies
for which it can be determined experimentally. The deviation at the high
-
97
-
CP
1.0
�
0
�
�
W
'-/
N
d
u
u
.......
"
N
'-/
+-'
...Q
d
"
a..
.......
.1
o
1
o
3.
18
functions
of
24
with
Olrve without marks: Eg. (2).
marks: Eg. (1), given. by Zwicker and Terhardt [9];
Olrve
logarithmic
(table value)
12
of the CB-rate scale.
Error
CB-rate z
b
. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . • . . . . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . .. •• .. . ... •• . . . . • . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . .... .
.... .... ......................... r. . . . . . .
!..................... . . . . . .. .... . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ............... , ......... ... . . . . . .... .
approximations
Fig.
- .4
-.3
•
- 2
-
•
.2
.3
.4
�
0
�
�
w
N
u
'-/
d
u
.......
"
N
'-/
+-'
...Q
d
.......
a..
"
0
1
•
2
1.0
I
_ __ n
2.0
I
4.0
I
(kHz)
4.
18
Error
functions
of
(3),
given. by Tj arov [4];
24
Upper curve:
Eg.
Lower curve:
sinus-hyperbolicus
CB-r ate z (tab 1 e va 1 ue )
12
(4) , given. by SchroErler [2].
Eg.
8.0
I
. ..... .. .. .... .. .... .. .. .. .. .. ................ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...................... . . . . . . ............ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
0.5
I
f
approximations of the CB-rate scale.
Fig.
-.4
-.3
-
-. 1
•
.2
.3
.4
0.0
I
Frequency
'!)
'!)
�
0
�
�
W
N
'-/
d
u
...-i
u
/"'\
N
'-/
+-'
�
...-i
a..
/"'\
3
(",
12
18
24
CB-r 0. le z (lab 1 e value )
and Terhardt [9].
of the CB-rate scale,
e.g:.
( 5) ,
given by Zwicker
Fig. 5. Error function of an overall approximation
-.4
-.3
2
�
o
�
�
w
'-/
N
•
•
-
N
'-/
+-'
.Q
d
...-i
a..
/"'\
d
u
I
8.0
-. 1
I
4 .0
U
......
I
2.0
o
I .
1.0
(kHz)
/"'\
o
I
I
f
1
.2
.
.4
0.5
0.0
Frequency
0
1
I
I
I
I
o
6.
Error
18
24
with error scale at the right: Eg. (6)
Upper curve, shown vertically
with corrections (7 ) and (8).
displaced,
by Traunrrile
ll r [5];
curve with error scale at the left: Eg. (6), given
Lower
"growth­
scale.
of a logistic
(table value)
12
function
CB-rate z
(",
!"" .. ,............................................................... " .................. ............. ............... �
curve" approximation of the CB-rate
Fig.
- .4
-.3
-.2
-. 1
•
.2
.3
.4
8.0
4.0
2.0
1.0
I
_
0.5
(kHz)
I
f
0.0
Frequency
-.
•
1
o
1
frequency end of the scale ranains unaccounted for.
Calculating z with eq.
achieved
bending
(6),
close agreanen t with the table can be
over the whole auditory frequency range by added
corrections ,
the error function straight at both ends of the scale,
in
the
following way:
For calculated z < 2.0 Bark:
and for calculated z
Since
>
z'
=
20.1 Bark:
z
z'
(7 ),
0.15 (2 - z)
+
=
this is an easily inverted procedure,
z
+
0.22 (z - 20.1)
(8).
the calculation of f for a
given z is not a problan. The error function obtained with these correc­
tions is also shown in Fig.
with
the table for f
>
6.
The values calculated in this way agree
100 Hz to within ± 0.05
Bark.
(7 ),
Correction
however, sirTulates also the abovanen tioned bias at low frequencies.
2.2 Expressions for critical bandwidth
Zwicker and Terhardt [9] proposed the equation
B
to
=
25
+
7 5 (1
+
-6 2 0.69
1.4 10
f )
(9),
calculate critical bandwidth B as a function of center-frequency
While
eq.
(9)
obtain CB-rate.
is quite accurate,
it can not easily be integrated
f.
to
The authors ' equation for CB-rate (5) is not canpatible
with eq. (9).
Proceeding fran eq. (6), critical bandwidths B can be calculated as
B
for
2
52548/ (z - 52.56 z
=
+
690.39)
(10)
critical bands centered at z obtained by eq.
tions.
The values calculated by eq.
within
±
6%
without
correc­
(10) agree with Zwicker 's table to
for 0.27 < f < 5.8 kHz .
Within
function is similar to that obtained by eq.
both equations are shown in Fig. 7 .
-
(6 )
100 -
that
range,
the
error
(9). The error functions of
8.0
I
2.0
I
1.0
I
0.5
(kH z )
f
Frequency
......
.4
/'"'-
r.............,
, . .", "
.. . . .
.
." .
.....
.. . . ..
.
" ,
.
.
. . ....
.
"
...
. ". . .
,, " .
.
. .... .. .
.
.
..
" .
.. . .. .
.
..
.
...
.. ..
�
.2
'-/
•
1
/'"'-
�
0
.......
d
u
-. 1
OJ
-.2
'-/
..
�
0
�
�
W
-
.
3
-. 4
+
-
:
................... ............ . . . . . . .. " ................ . . . . . . .. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .
o
Z
(l ab 1
.
ef'
. . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E'
.:
24
18
12
I;
f'Y.\
-- -- -- -
:
CB -I' a t €I
(curve
". .
.3
..Q
d
......
Fig.
. . . ....
valu E' )
7 . Error functions for critical bandwidth calculated with eqs. (9)
with
marks) and (10) (curve without marks),
Zwicker I s table values (se also Fig. 1).
-
10 1 -
as
canpared
with
The
HSER,
preparation of this paper has been. supported by a grant fran
the Swedish Council for Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences.
[1]
B. C.J ,
Moore,
and
•
Glasberg,
B. R.,
Suggested
formulae
for
calculating auditory-filter bandwidths and excitation patterns.
J.
Acoust. Soc. Amer. 7 4 [1983], 7 50-7 53.
[2] Schroeder,
Recognition of canplex acoustic signals. In T. H.
M.R.,
Bullock. ( ed. ) , Life Sciences Research Report 5 (Dahlem Konferenzen)
Abakon verlag, Berlin, 197 7 , pp. 323-328.
[ 3]
Syrdal,
A.
K.
recognition
and
based
H.
Gopal,
on
the
S.,
auditory
A perceptual rrodel of
representation
of
vowel
American
English vowels. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 7 9 [1986], 1086-1100.
V.
[4] Tj arov,
L., A rrodel to describe the results of psychoacoustical
experiments
on steady-state stirruli.
Analiz Rechevykh Signalov Chelovek.an,
In
G.
Nauka,
V.
Gershuni
(ed.),
Leningrad, 197 1, pp.
36-49.
[5] Traunrrle
lLl r, H., en vowels: perception of Spectral Features, Related
Aspects
of
Production
and
Sociophonetic
Dimensions,
thesis,
Stockholms Universitet, 1983.
[6]
Traunrrile
ll r,
H. ,
paralinguistic variation and invariance
in
the
characteristic frequencies of vowels, paper suhnitted to Phonetica.
[7 ]
Zwicker,
E.,
Zur
unterteilung des horbaren Frequenzbereiches
in
Frequenzgruppen.. Acustica 10 [1960], 185.
[8] Zwicker,
loudness
[9] Zwicker,
band
E.,
Flottorp G., and Stevens S.S., Critical band width in
SlIDTTlation.
E.,
J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 29 [1957 ], 548-557 .
and Terhardt E., Analytical expressions for critical­
rate and critical bandwidth as a function
Acoust. Soc. Amer. 68 [1980], 1523-1524.
-
102
-
of
frequency.
J.
ATTITUDES TO IMMIGRANT SWEDISH A L I TERATURE REV I EW AND P REPARATORY EXPERIMENTS
U n a C u n n i ngham-And e r s s o n a nd Olle Engs t r a nd
Abs t r ac t
Th i s pape r
p r ov i de s a br i e f r e view o f prev i ou s work p ub l i s h e d i n
the
f i elds
of
l i ngu i s t i c
a t t i t ud e s,
n o n - na t i ve
a c c e nt s
a nd
n a t i v e - s peak e r a t t i t udes
t o n o n- na t i ve
a c c e n t s. An e xpe r i me n t al
i nve st i ga t i o n o f n a t i v e
Swe d i sh
s p e ak e r s'
a b i l i ty
t o ide n t i fy
n o n - na t i ve a c c e nts
i s report ed:
lingu i s t i c all y n a i ve i n f o rma n t s
c ould o nly id e nt i f y a f ew a cce nt s, wh i l e t e ache r s
o f Swed i sh f or
i mm i gr a n t s c o uld
i d e n t i fy ma ny mor e a cce n t s . A method f or evalu­
a ting d e gr ee of a c ce n t edne s s i s developed ,
a nd i t
i s f ou nd t h a t
s i mple a c c e n t ed n e s s evalua t i o n s b y n a t i ve spe a k e r s c orrela t e wel l
t o evalua t i o n s o bt a i n e d f rom li ngu i s t s u s i ng
a c ompl i c a t ed gr ad­
i ng
sy s t em.
Me t hods
for
e l i c i ti ng n a t i ve s p e ak e r a t t i t ud e s t o
n o n - n a t i ve a cc e n t s and
to
the
m i n or i ty
g r o ups
who
u s e t hese
a ccen t s a re d i s c u s s e d .
In a n o t h e r
e xp e r i me n t, d e s i g n e d
u s i ng t he r e s ul t s o f t h e a c c e n t
n a t i ve s p e aker a t t i ­
i de n t i f i c a t i o n expe r i me n t
men t i o n e d a bove ,
t ude s
to
a
s i ngl e
n o n- na t i ve
s p eaker
we re el i cit e d w i th t h e
i nf orma n t s alt e r n a t ely
bel i ev i ng t h e
s peak e r t o
b e Kurd i sh a nd
G e rma n ( a var i e ty o f "ma t ch e d-gu i s e " t e chn i qu e ) . He w a s judge d t o
b e more f r i e ndly a nd l e s s s uc c e s s f ul wh e n belie ve d t o be
a Kurd .
The
rela t i o n s h i p
betw e e n
accen t e d ness a nd n a t i ve s p e aker att i ­
t ud e s w a s explo red i n the same exper i men t, and
both in
the c a s e
o f two s peake r s bel i e ved t o be Kurd s a n d two s p e ak e r s b e l i eved t o
be Germa n s , n a t i ve s p e akers re a c t ed more n e g a t i vely t o t h e s p e ak­
e r w i t h t h e s t r o n g e r ac c e n t .
Ev i de n c e i s
pr e s en t e d s ugges t i ng t h a t where n a t i ve s p e ak e rs f a i l
t o re c og n i se n o n - na t i v e a c c e n t s ,
s t ro ng e r a c c e n t s
a r e judged t o
b e spok e n
by i mm i gr a n t s
f rom c ou n t r i e s f ur t her away f rom Swe d e n
than weaker a c c ents .
CONTENTS
I n troduc tion
1.
2.
Li t erature review
2.1 S t ere o type vie w s of l a ng u a g e
2 . 2 P h o ne t i c f e a ture s o f n o n - n a t i ve a c c e n t s
2 . 3 S t e r e o type f e a t u r e s o f n o n - na t i ve a c c e n t s
2.4 T oler a n c e o f f or e i g n a c c e n t s
2 . 5 A t t i t ude me a s ureme n t
2.6 Ide n t i fi c a t i o n o f a c c e n t o r i g i n
3 . Expe rime n t s
3 . 1 I d e n t i fi c a t i o n o f f or e i g n a c c e n t s
3 . 2 I de n ti f i c a t i o n o f f or eign la ngu a g e s
3 . 3 A c c e nt e dn e s s me a s ur e m e n t
3 . 4 A t t i t ude me a s u reme n t
3 . 5 Rela t i o n s h i p betwe e n a c c e n t ed n e s s a nd a c c e n t
4 . P l anned experime n t s
4 . 1 On t h e n a t ur e o f f or e i g n a c ce n t s
4 . 2 Ma n i pu l a t i o n o f a c c e n t edn e s s
-
103
-
ident i f i c at i on
1.
Introduc t i on
C ommu n i c a t i o n b e t we e n
guage is
i mm i g r a nts a nd
o f t e n di f f i c u l t .
problems t h a t
the
v o c a bu l a ry or
pho n ol o gy .
This c a n
i mm i g r a nt
t h e n a t i ve
s p e ak e r ' s
p e r f o rma n c e
can
be
has
be due t o purely
w i th
t he
of
a l a n­
l i ngu i s t i c
l a nguage' s s y nta x ,
Th e r e is h owev e r re a s o n t o be l ieve t h a t
t o l e ra n c e
i n f l ue n c ed
s p e ak e r s
j udge d i al e c t s o t h e r
"broad",
"ple a s a n t"
or
n ative s p e ak e r s
of
the
i mm i g r a n t ' s
by o th e r
tha n
"ugly",
f a c t ors.
the i r
s ome
own
l i n gu i s t i c
Jus t a s n a tive
to
be " sl o p py" ,
f oreign a c c e nts a re he l d t o
b e more a t t r a c t i ve t h a n o th e r s .
It
me n t s are
bu t als o an e x pre s s i o n o f more or
not o nly
a e s t h e tic ,
s e ems l i k ely t h a t t h e s e
j udge­
le s s c o n s c i ou s l y held a tt i t ude s t o the s p e ak e r s o f the a c c e nts o r
dial e c t s .
The p i c t ure
i s mor e
tha n f o r spe a k e r s o f
c omp l i c a t e d f or spe ak e r s o f
u n c e r t a i n ty in t h e
g e n e r al.
It
i nvo l ve d a s well
f ac e
i s o nly
of
be genu i ne
a s u n f am i l i ar i ty w i th a nd
f or e i g n er s
a nd
immig r a n t s
make o ne s el f u nd e r s t o od.
ni c a ti o n be twe e n n a t i v e s p e a k e r s
n e twork o f
may
foreign
accents
in
i n t h e mo s t e x t r eme c a s e s t h a t c ommun i c at i o n
be twe e n n a t i v e s p e a ke r s a nd
i n a b i lity t o
s i nce t h e r e
o t h e r di a l e cts,
c ompr e h e n s i o n probl ems
f ore i g n a c cen t s
evalu a t i o n s a nd
a nd
f ails
due
to
a c omple t e
It i s p r o b a ble that commu­
i mmig r a n t s,
p r e jud i c e.
Th i s
i s b a s ed
i s a nalo g o u s to
on a
the
sit u a tion whe r e two n a tive spe ake r s e x c h a nging ple a s a ntr i es a b o u t
t h e weath e r c a n e a ch ,
f o rm a
o n the b a s i s o f a
f a i rly d e t ail ed
ge ogra ph i c al o r i g i n ,
evalua t i o n s
that
pi c t ure
of
e du c a t i o n e t c.
n a tive
s p e ak e r s
-
1 04
-
the
f ew m i n ute s
o t h e r' s
c o nvers a t i o n ,
s o c i al s t a t u s ,
The d i f f er e n c e
make
r e g a rding
i s that
the
o t h e r n a tive
spe akers a r e
more l i kely t o b e ba s ed o n
t ho s e regard i ng
Th e project
low i ng
i mm i gr a nt s .
" At t i t ud e s
f o ur
f ac t a n d exp e r i e nce t h a n
to
I mm i gr a n t Swed i sh"
f u ndame n t al
qu e s t i o n s ,
addre s s e s the
f ol­
u s i ng e x p er i me n t al pho ne t i c
a nd s o c i ol i ngu i s t i c me t hods :
*
f l e c t ed
*
a t titudes
How are nat i ve s p e akers '
i n the i r a t t i t udes t o
What
c ons equences do
to
i mmigrant s'
fore i gn a c cents
e t hn i c
m i nor i t i e s re­
fore i gn a c cent s?
have for the
l i nguistic
i nt e ract i on betwe e n Swe d e s a nd imm i grants?
*
Under wh i ch phone t i c c i rcumstan c e s c a n a nat i ve
a non-na t i ve
own
*
a reas o na b l e approx i mat i on to h i s
l i nguis t i c norm?
How can new phonet i c res e arch c o nt r i bute t o
and
i ncrease underst a nd i ng of the way
In t h e
f i r s t y e ar o f the proje c t ,
to t h o s e
c overed by the proje c t
expe r i me n t s
f i rs t
2.
pronunc i a t i on as
s p e aker a c cept
have
t hree o f
be e n
i mm i gra n t s s pe ak Swed i sh?
prev i ou s work
has
p e r f ormed
an exp l a nat i on f or
in
bee n s t udied ,
f i e ld s relat ed
a nd prel i m i n ary
t o t e s t hyp o t he s e s
a r o und t h e
t h e a bove ba sic que s t i o n s .
L i t e rature rev i ew
2 . 1 Stere o t ype v i ew s o f l a nguage
A g o o d d e al o f res e ar c h
i n t o l i ngu i s t i c a t t i t ud e s o n t h e o n e h a nd
a nd f ore i gn a c c e n t s o n t h e o t h e r h a s b e e n per f ormed.
ever k n own about
a t t i t ude s t o
Les s
i s h ow­
fore i g n a c c e n t s .
It has o f t e n been a s s um e d by s o c i al p s y c h ol o g i s t s t h a t an evalua­
t i on o f
a var i e ty o f l a nguage by a group o f
-
1 05
-
i n f o rma n t s
i s ne c e s -
s a r i ly h i ghly c orrela t ed t o
spe a k e r s
of
the language
p e r c e p t i o n o f l a nguage
a nd s o c i ally
is
that
group's
var i ety .
L a b ov
in
fact
a t t i t ud e
(1966)
t owa rd s t h e
c l a i ms t h at mo s t
p e r c ep t i o n o f s o c i al e x p e r i e n c e
a cc e p t ed s t a t eme nt s a b o u t l a n g u a g e .
Th i s le ads t o a
s t e r e o ty p ed v i ew o f a group wh i ch
i s bel i eved t o s p e ak
way .
L abov s ugge s t s tha t l a ng u a g e
i s a symbol o f
c i al
i d e n t i ty.
Mo s t n a t i ve
a b o u t la ngua g e
i n f orma n t s h a v e
a nd c a n d e t e c t
luate
the s e
in
s o c i al
v a r i a bl e s a r e h ow e v e r
c o ns c i ous
appe a r s t o f o c u s o nly o n
s o c i al aware n e s s
t e rms.
La bov
of
certa i n
The re a c t i o n s t o ma ny l i ngu i s t i c
res p o n s e s b e l ow
c omme n t s
i t ems
a nd have
v e ry s tr o n g o p i n i o n s
f e a t ur e s a nd c o n s i s t e n t ly ev a­
i na r t i c ul a t e
awa r e ne s s .
a p a r t i c ul a r s o ­
t h e pres e n c e o r a bs e n c e
s t i gma t i z ed o r s o c i a l ly d i a g n o s t i c
i n a g i ve n
that
t h a t have
be c ome p a r t
the
l evel o f
c o n s c i ou s a t t e n t i o n
r i s e n to
t he level o f
o f t h e a c c ep t ed
f o l klore
a b o u t l a ng u a g e .
Rob i n s o n
(1972)
a t i ve s t ud i e s
s ugge s t s t h a t
are
ba s ed
c u e s a r e us ed t o pl a c e
e t h n i c i ty ,
s o c i al
i ntrodu c ed
l i s t e ners '
ers
on two s teps :
t h e spe ak e r
clas s ) ;
i nd i v i du a l a r e de r i ved .
(1960)
i mp re s s i o n s o f
the
s e c o ndly,
Lamb e r t ,
f i r s t ly,
group
(age,
the
G a rd n e r
a nd F i lle n b a um
t e ch n i qu e
diale cts
p e r s o n al i ty o f
s ame
or a c cents .
p a s s ag e
f o r comp a r i ng
i n all t h e "gu i s e s ",
the i r r at i ng s
r e fle c t i o n o f
are a
l a ng u a g e var i e ty
c o n c erned ,
-
1 06
u s i ng
are
it
two
not
or more
t old th a t
i s a s sumed t h a t
t h e i r s t e r e o type d re a c t i o n t o
s i nce
-
a nd
The l i ste n­
a r e c o rded s p e ak­
The l i s t e ne r s
t h e s ame p e r s o n r e ad s
sex ,
c o n c e r n i ng the
r e a c t i o n s t o d i f f e r e n t l a nguage var i e t i e s.
e r a ft e r h e a r i ng h i m r e ad th e
the
a nd spe e ch
s t e r e o type s
H odg s o n,
i n evalu­
vo i c e
a s o c i al
" ma tched-gu i s e"
a r e r equ i r ed to evalua t e
langu a g e s ,
in
spe ake r s
f a c t or s
s u ch
a s a c t u al
p e r s o na l i ty ,
es .
qua l i ty,
vo i c e
( 1 9 60 ) ,
Lamb e r t e t a l .
f ound
e rs ,
that
t empo e t c
u s i ng
Fre nch- s p e ak i ng s tude n t s
i n Mo n t re a l
evalu a t ed t h e
p re f e rr e d
F r e nch gu i s e s
f avourab l y t h a n t h e Eng l i s h - s p e ak i ng l i s t e ners d i d .
e t al.
i nt e r p r e t e d t h i s
the Fr e nch-s p e a k i ng
va l ue s
of
al .
( c. f.
G i l es
tha t
s p e ak e r s o f
react i ons
aware n e s s .
r e a c t e d more
than
to
the
s ame
such
as
B ourh i s
is
et
a l.
f ound
l ess
r e ad i ng
( 1 9 73 )
a
a p a s s age
p o s i t i ve s el f - i mage ,
n o n- n a t i ve
mak e
a nd Re n ch e r
spe ak e r s
p e r s o n a l i ty
1 9 73 ,
i n We l sh
i n E ng l i sh,
o f Wels h
1 974 ) .
as
wh e r e
i n f ere n c e s
i nd i v i duals .
o n the
d o c ume n t ed
( 1 9 70 )
(c. f .
f ound t h a t
Fre nch a nd Nor t h Ame r i c a n acce n t s have h i gh e r prestige
Br i t i sh reg i o nal acce n t s amo ng Br i t i s h
-
1 07
-
1 2 a nd
a nd
i de n t i ty .
judgeme n t s
G i l es
in
l i s t e ne r s
p a s s ag e
spe a k e r s a r e r equ i r e d t o mak e
to
sug­
w i t h cha ng e s
t h a t Welsh
s t r e ng t h of h e a r i ng a v oi c e r e ad a t e xt i s we l l
S t rong
re a c t e d
In
i n L amb e r t e t al .
may ch a ng e
i s t ak e n t o b e a symb o l
pos s i bl e
u s e d t h e ma t ­
Taj f el
t ho s e o bs e rv e d
s p e ak e r s r e a d i ng
about t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
Br own ,
the
1 9 75 f o r r ev i ew ) .
G i le s a nd
( 1 969 )
spe ak e r s
s tud i e s n a t i ve
it
a nd P owe s l a nd
t o t he We l sh s p e ak e r s '
the Welsh l a ngu age
Tha t
o t h e r s tud i e s have
Bourh i s ,
f avoura b l y t o
a t t r i bu t e d th i s
I n ma ny
t hey p e r c e i ve t o be
B l ack E ngl i sh t h a n s p e ak e r s u s i ng the
a nd Tu c k e r a nd Lamb e r t
e t hn i c
wha t
r e a c t i o n " where by
f ound tha t B l a c k Ame r i c a n s
"s t a nd a rd n e twork s ty l e" .
( 1 9 60 )
ado p t
( 1960 )
Tu cker a nd Lamb e r t
f avoura b l y t o
ge s t
"m i nor i ty group
Lamb e r t
the Engl i sh-s p e ak i ng ma jor i ty .
ched-gu i s e me thod
1969 ,
as a
s tude n t s
Fo l l ow i ng Lamb e r t e t
R. P. ,
f or a l l gu i s­
b i l i ngual Fre n c h-Eng l i s h r e ad­
Engl i sh gu i s e s t o Fre n c h gu i s e s a nd
l ess
a r e t h e s ame
1 7 y e a r olds ,
than
wh i le
G e rma n a nd It a l i a n a c ce n t s were
R . P.
a nd
Fre n c h a c c e n t s
we re
i n t e rmed i a t e .
judg e d
In t h e
s ame s t udy,
h i gh o n a e s t h e t i c
wh i l e I t a l i a n a nd North Ame r i c a n were
c o n t e nt,
i n t ermed i a t e a nd G e rma n wa s
low .
Arthur ,
( 1 983 )
Farrar
as
t ive l y
a nd
hav i ng
a nd
f o und
s t e r e o typed
s c al e s re l a t i ng
Carranza
r a t ed more
f ou nd
f avourably
a nd
be twe e n t h e amo u n t
of
soc i a l
Mex i c a n- a c c e n t ed
i n home
a nd s ch o o l
s t ud e n t s
aware n e s s .
on
Rya n
i n t h e h ome
Mo f f i e
( 1977 )
Eng l i sh
both
f or
c o n t e x t s by A nglo-Amer i ­
adol e sce n t s ,
a l t h ough
a Me x i c a n
c o nt e x t .
i nves t i ga t ed t h e re l a t i o n s h i p
a c c e n t ed ne s s a nd
i s t i c s o f Spa n i sh-Eng l i sh b i l i ng u a l
100
Eng l i sh wa s n e g a ­
t h a t s t a nd a rd Eng l i sh s p e ak e r s were
than
a c c e nt wa s more a c cep t a bl e
Carranza
quo t e d by E i s e n s t e i n
u n i vers i ty
a b i l i ty a nd
Mex i c a n- Ame r i c a n a nd B l a c k
Rya n ,
are
A ng l o -Ame r i c a n
to s u c c e s s ,
( 1 977 )
( 1 974 )
tha t Spa n i s h - a c c e n ted
by
s t a tus a nd s o l i da r i ty
can ,
Brad f ord
t h e a t t r i bu t ed c h a r a c t e r­
s pe a k e r s .
Th e y
c ol l e g e s t ude n t s who l i s t e n ed t o t h e a c c e nt ed
f ou nd tha t
the
s p e e ch d i s t i n­
gu i shed sma l l d i f f e re n c e s
i n a c c e n t ed n e s s whe n r a t i ng a s p e ak e r ' s
persona l
s p e e ch.
a c c e nt
a t t r i bu t e s
the
a nd
s t r o n g e r the n e g a t i ve
po i nt s c a l e s
t o me a s ur e
of
una c c e nt ed;
p l e a s a n t -u n pl e a s a n t;
rev i ew )
a
Ry a n a nd C ors o
s t ud i ed
the
f r i end;
-
1 08
the
eve n t u a l
( re p o r t e d
a t t i t udes
of
in
that
Rya n et
h e av i e r the
al .
us ed 7-
f o l l ow i ng d i me n s i o ns:
o c c up a t i o n;
a c c e n t e d­
f l u e n t - u n flue n t .
( 1 978 )
u nd e rgradua t e s t o s p e akers
f ou nd
s t er e o type .
a t t i t ud e s
l i ke l i h ood
S e ba s t i a n ,
be i ng
Th ey
of
i n E i s e ns t e i n
m i dd l e - c l a s s Ang l o-Am e r i c a n
s t a ndard Eng l i s h
-
( 1 983 ) ' s
a nd Engl i sh w i t h
t hr e e
d e gr e e s
t ed n e s s,
of
S p a nish- a c c e nt ed ne s s ,
i n t e l l i g i bi l i ty ,
t i on s hi p s w i th
w i th r e s pe c t
of
the d e s i ra bi l i ty
f i ve
the a c c e n ted s p e akers a nd t he ext e n t
s t a nd a rd spe ak e r s t hought the a c c e n t e d s p e akers
t h e m on
f i ve soc i al
i ssues .
speake r s we re t hought t o be
i n beli e f s ,
a nd
l owe r
i n socia l
2
Spa ni s h - a c c e n t e d
middle- c l a s s or
m i dd l e a nd
a lowe r
Engl i s h
The s t ud e n t s r a t ed t h e
a nd speech
men t s.
a t ed
d i f fere n c e b e t we e n m i ddle
2.2
It
Phonet i c
i s,
h a nd ,
of
more
th i s
is
( 1 970 )
the
pos s i bl e
wh ere
con t e n t
wa s a
s p e ak e r .
s t e reot y p e
judge­
f avou r a b l y ev alu­
impo r t a n t
to
a c ce n t s
d i s t i nguish betwe e n,
o n t h e one
wh i ch c a n ev i d e ntly be
on
cle a r
i n f orma n t s
f rom
ma ny s t ud i e s ,
j ud g e d
va rio u s
con t e nt
-
to
Br i t i s h
( re f l e c t i ng
1 09
the a c c e nt
-
Th a t
for e x amp l e G i l e s
s p e aki ng w i t h t h e a c c e n t i n qu e s tio n )
( r e f l e c t i ng a t t i t ud e s
e l i­
t he o t her h a nd ,
non- n a t i ve a c c e n t s s poke n by t h e s e grou p s .
is
The
cla s s s p e ak e r s wa s mu c h s ma l l e r .
a c c e n t s d i f f e r e nt l y for s t a t u s
the group
there
for all me a s ur e s .
cited u s i ng a c c e n t e d s p e ak e r s a s s timu l i a nd,
to
tha t
s o l id a r i ty ,
a c ce n t ed s p e a k e r s
a t ti t ud e s to e t h ni c m i nori t i e s ,
a t t i t ud e s
s t a nd a rd a nd
a l so made soc i al d i s t a n c e
fea t ures o f no n - n a tive
cours e ,
2
i n t rodu ctio n for ea c h k i nd o f
s p e akers on s t a t u s ,
c l as s
The se
to 8 0 u ndergr adu a tes w i t h
Lower cla s s s t a nd a rd s p e ak e r s we r e
l ower
l e s s s i m i la r
i n c re a s e d a c c e n ted n e s s .
s p e ak e r s
c h a ra c t e r i sti c s a n d
tha n
c l ass ,
i n t rodu c t i on s s u ch
cl a s s
to wh i ch t h e
wou l d a gr e e wi t h
p r e s e n ted r e cord i ng s o f
l ow e r c l a s s
re l a-
i n a r a ng e o f r e l a t i on sh i p s .
evalua t i o n s be c ame mor e n e g a t i ve w i th
( 1 980 )
soc i a l
Res ul t s s howed t h a t S p a ni s h - a c c e n t e d
l e s s des i ra b l e
Ry a n a nd S e b a s t i a n
to a c c e n­
a nd
a nd
fore i g n
a t t i t ud e s
to
f or esthetic
i t s el f ) .
The ext e n t
to
wh i c h
d i f f erent
t o l e ra t e d w i l l
I n o rd e r
o f devi at i ons
f r om n a t i ve s p e e c h a r e
b e d i s c us s e d b e l ow .
t o st udy
n o n - na t i ve
k i nds
t h e a t t i t ud e s
a c c e nt s
we
mu s t
o f nat i ve
Swe d i s h s p e a k e r s t o
d e t e rm i n e wh a t t h e p h o ne t i c d i f f e ­
r e n c es be twe e n n a t i v e a nd n o n - n a t i ve Swe d i s h a r e .
Th e
non-n a t i ve a c c e n t s
c a n be
fe a t u r e s o n the
o n e h a nd ,
f e a t ures wh i ch
of
a
a nd t h os e
p a r t i c u l ar
f e a t ure o f
t h ought o f
l a ng u a g e
non-n a t i ve
a
o n the
a s genera l
are assoc i a t ed
other .
i s the i r
me t h o d
f o r me asur i ng n a t i ve
deve l o p e d
f l u e n cy
i n t e rms o f r a t e
a nd
l a ck o f
pause .
He
s i l e n c e o f gr e a t e r dura t i o n t h a n 0 . 2 s .
age of
paus e s
i n r e a d i ng a nd
free
e n c es bus i n e s s
had 5 1%
n a t i ve s p e a k e rs
w i t h 39%
w i t h 56%
p a us e .
Th i s
f u t ur e
p l a ns .
Joh a n s s o n
wi l l
( 1 973 )
p e r f o rme d a
n o n - n a t i ve a c c e n t s
of
the s p e a k e r s '
b e t ak e n up
but
n a t i ve
phonemes we re a r r a n g e d
a n d the s u b s t i t u t i o n
or i g i n .
f r e e s p e e ch ,
l es s e x p e r i ­
p a u s e a nd
t h e Br i t i sh
A n o t h e r g e n e r a l f e a t ur e
l i tt l e
i s k n own
n on­
i s var i a ­
c omp a r i ng t h e
use d
a n a l ys i s o f
ph o n o l og i c a l
Swe d i sh .
1 10 -
9
s y s t ems
Swe d i sh
f r e q u e n cy o f m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n ,
we r e
l i st e d
f or
e a ch a c c ent
c o n s i d e r e d we r e Ame r i c a n Eng l i sh ,
-
of
i n t h e d i s c uss i o n of t h e p r oj e c t' s
i n o rd e r o f
Th e n i n e a c c e n t s
t h e r e wa s
t o t he
l a nguages w i t h t h a t o f
types
in
sys t ema t i c s e gme nt a l
i n Swe d i sh ,
as a
c a l cu l at ed the percent­
c omp a r e d
n a t i ve a c c e n t s a b o u t wh i c h re l a t i ve l y
b i l i ty.
"paus e "
l earn e r s o f E ng l i sh w i th d i f f e ­
p a u se
c o l l e g e s t ud e n t s
Leht o n e n
a nd n on-na t i ve
d e f i ned
amo u n t s o f s t udy whe n t e x t s w e r e r e a d ,
un i ve rs ity s t u d e n t s
f l u e n cy .
s pe e ch a nd f o u nd t h a t
l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e b e t we e n F i n n i sh
r e nt
He
w i t h s p e ak e r s
Th e mos t o bv i o u s g e n e r a l
accents
( 1981 )
f e a t ur e s o f
Cze ch ,
D a n i sh ,
F i n n i sh ,
Cro a t i a n .
Gre ek ,
Bannert
(1 980 )
c u l t i es t h a t s p e a k e rs
pronunc i a t i on o f
ty p e s wh i ch
of
o c c u r f or
to ,
f e atures o f
l a nguage )
accent
He
a l s o p r e s e n t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n e rr o r
s ev e r a l
n o n - n a t i ve
in,
o b s e rv e d
a c c e nt s
re c o g n i z e d .
expe c t ed
f e a t ur e s ,
s p e ak e r s
It
is
w i t h o u t s t i mu l a t i o n
ana l y s i s o f
s i gna t ure
of
f r om
a
and prosod i c
wh i ch t h e p a r t i c u l a r
is
wh a t L a bov
feature s upon
i n t h e a c c e nt
part
of
in a
wh i ch c o n ­
c a s e tha t
i n que s t i on ,
the
g e nu i ne
s i mu l a t e
Eng l i sh
i n Swe d i sh .
showe d t ha t
a n Eng l i sh a c c e nt
a c c ent .
I t wa s
S u b s e qu e nt
f e a t ur e s o r
f ound
a c c e nt s d i d n o t h a v e t h e Swe d i sh t o n a l
r e t ro f l e x
r e du c e d .
-
but
n a t i ve s p eak e r' s
p i l o t e xp e r i me n t ,
c ou l d
a n Eng l i sh a c c e n t
a
( 1966 )
a ny p a r t i c u l ar n o n - na t i ve a c c e nt.
Swe d i sh
/ r / was p r o n o u n c e d as
the i r
i nd e e d a ny o t h e r
t h e s i mula t e d a c c e n t s g ave t h e s t e re o ty p e
s i mu l a t e d Eng l i sh
l a ngua g e s ,
not ne c e s s ar i l y the
a nd are
( 1 986 ) ,
of
( or
" s i gn a t ur e "
f o c u s e d.
C u n n i ngh am-A ndersso n
i n the
i n o rd e r o f
s e gme n t a l
f e a t ur es by
Th i s
o f a nd o p i n i o ns a b o u t
n a t i ve
d i f f e re n t
i n Swe d i sh
f e a t ur e s a r e a l ways p r e s e nt
they a r e
mode l
is
have
accents
n o n-nat i ve
re f erred t o a s the s o c i a l l y d i agnost i c
these
l a ngu a g e s
i n t e l l i g i b i l i ty .
i n c l ud e d
s c i ou s a t t e n t i o n
a nd p ro s od i c d i f f i ­
d i f f erent
are thos e st e r e otype
is
a nd S e rb o ­
25
s p e ake rs o f
f e a t ures of
a nd
P o r t ugu e s e
of p r o n u n c i a t i o n e r r o r ty p e s
hyp o thes i s e d e f f e c t o n
2 . 3 Ste reotype
P o l i sh ,
s t ud i e d s e gme nt a l
Swed i sh .
a nd a n a r r a ng eme n t
P a ra l l e l
Hu ng a r i a n ,
1 1 1
-
a nd
uns t r e s s e d
tha t the
accent ,
vowe l s we r e
S i m i l ar l y ,
F l e g e a nd Hammond
Eng l i sh who we r e
f am i l i a r
wi th
s i mu l a t e a
S p a n i sh a c c e nt .
a s s o c i ated
wi th
alt e r e d
( 1 9 82 )
/ p , t,k /
f ound
f i na l
t h at t h e
sy l l a b l e
th i s
to
be
t e nta t i ve
d i s t i n c t i ve pho n e t i c d i ff er e n c e s betwe e n
l a ng u a g e
t i on o f
( 1 966) ,
mo s t
c a s e t h a t n at i ve
on l y those
s p e ak e rs
about
f e a t ure s wh i c h
( pr ov i d e d t h e y k n ow wh i ch a c c e n t
n a t i ve
s p e ak e r s h e a r a n a c c e n t
t h ey may n o t be
ab l e t o
wh i c h f e a t ur e s
of
n o n - n a t i ve
i n n a t i ve s p e a k e r s ?
e s t a b l i sh
(a)
f e a t ur e they
it
fe a t ur e
in
p e r c e i ve
Is
in
it
is).
(b)
g e nu i n e n o n­
C o nv e r s e l y ,
whe n
t o ask
o r n e g a t i ve
p o s i t i ve
a c c e n t wh i l e t h ey
p a r t i c u l a r n o n - na t i ve
b u t p os i t i ve a t t i t ud e s
it
a t t i t udes
wh e t h e r nat i ve s p e ak­
Th i s wou l d p r o v i de
i s p o ss i b l e
f e a t ur e
to the same
c o nv i n c i ng c orr o b o­
t o se para t e a t t i
f r om a t t i t ud e s t o t h e e t hn i c m i nor i ­
t i e s who s p e a k them .
-
I t may t h e n
i t t h e n me a n i ng f u l
a n o n - n a t i ve
to a
one a c cent
n o n - n a t i ve a c c e n t s
a
c r e a t e p o s i t i ve
t o a n o t h e r a nd
i n another a c c ent .
to
i s p e r c e p­
Fur t h e r e x p e r i me n t s a r e r e q u i r e d t o
r a t i o n f o r t h e hy p oth e s i s t h a t
t ud e s t o
it .
a c c e nts
n e g a t i ve a t t i t ude s
o c c urs
l a ng u a g e
they a s s o c i a t e w i t h t h a t
wh e t h e r n at i ve s p e ak e r s c a n have
have a n e ga t i ve a t t i t ud e
whe n
a r e d e t e c t ab l e
f or wh i c h they h a v e n o s t e r e o ty p e ,
i de n t i fy
a t t i tude s
e r s have
e v i de n c e that n o n ­
l a ng u a g e .
l i s t e n i ng
a c c e nt
one
l e n g t h e n i ng w e r e
l a ng u a g e s
p e r c e p t i on o f
s o c i a l l y a c c e p t e d st ateme n t s
n a t i ve h e a r
to
l o ng VOT va l u e s
l e arners .
A c c ord i ng t o La bov
be t h e
Eng l i sh c ou l d
i n th e d i re c t i o n o f S p a n i sh a nd S p a n i s h - a c c e n t e d Eng l i sh .
F l e g e a nd Hammo nd take
by
n a t i ve s p e ak e r s o f
S p a n i sh-a c c e n t e d
Th ey
and
f ou n d t h a t
1 1 2
-
2 . 4 To l e ran c e o f
A t t i t udes t o
n o n - n at i ve
e t hn i c m i n o r i ty
mu l i )
f or e i g n a c c e n t s
g r av i ty o f
l e ar n e r s
i n te rms
e r ro r.
o f the
He
( 1 978 )
f o und
c i at i on ,
a nd
t h a t e rr o r s
mor e s e r i ous than th ose
D j ord j ev i c
( 1971 )
in
made
Yugo s l av judges ,
q uo t e d
by
( W i ng s t e d t
c e n t or w i th
have a
i ncrease
( 1 9 7 8)
a nd S chulma n 1 9 8 4 )
I t s e ems l i k e l y t h a t
f or
s p e akers o f
s e n t e n c e s we re
exper i e nced
to l erant o f
of
te a c h e r s
of
D i m i t r i j e v i c a nd
f ound t h a t
nat i ve
e r r o rs
in
for prosod i c errors .
i n genera l
p r o nu n c i a t i o n s .
of
Engl i sh
c ou l d b e
e rr o r s
-
t ha n
1 1 3
-
non­
words
l e ss
l i ke l y
J oh a n s s o n
mor e s ev e r e l y
fam i l i a r w i th n o n ­
wa s h owe v e r
t ak e n t o
of
is
Eng l i sh t e nd t o judge t h e
The o p p os i t e
Th i s
1 9 84 )
c ompr e h e n s i o n o f
Eng l i s h who we r e n o t
j udges a r e more t o l e r a nt
s e gme n t a l
c o n s i de r e d t o be
f am i l i a r i ty w i th a p a r t i c u l ar
d ev i a nt
E ng l i sh .
judg e d .
vowel p r o n u n ­
( G a s s a nd V a r o n i s
o r w i th n o n - n a t i ve s p e e ch
t h a t Swe d i sh
n a t i ve va r i e t i e s
in
or a p a r t i c u l a r k i nd or ac­
i n g e n e r al
Swe d i sh a c c e n t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n
than nat ive
ma de by Swe d i sh
s e gme nt a l
o n n a t i ve s p e a k e r s
t o l erance
f ound
of
p e r c e i ve d
f am i l i a r i ty w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r n o n-n a t i v e
p o s i t i ve e f f e c t
n o n - nat i ve a c c e n t
to
t o l erant
t h e o p p o s i te wa s t ru e
f or e i g n a c c e nt s
n a t i ve s p e e c h.
J o h a ns s o n )
the
Yug os l av s t ud e n t s o f Eng l i sh t h a n we r e
Rese a r c h has shown t h a t
s p e ak e r
by
the
of
pronunc i at i ons o f
t ha n e r r o r s
i n se n t e n c e s a n d t e x t s .
(as
wh i l e
e rr o r s
i s o l a t e d words w e r e
s p e a k e rs o f E ng l i s h we r e more
pronunc i at i on
e x am i n e d
t h a t d ev i a n t
c o n s o n a nts we r e d e eme d mo re s e r i o u s
as st i ­
p e r c e i ve d grav i ty
( a nd g r ammat i ca l )
Engl i sh .
f r om a t t i t ud e s t o
u s i ng a c c e n t e d s p e ak e r s
J oha n s s o n
p h o n o l og i cal
of
( a s d i s t i n ct
groups e l i c i t ed
c a n be e l i c i t e d
pronunc i a t i on
accents
t ru e whe n
i nd i c a t e tha t mor e
p r o s od i c e rr o r s
and
e x p e r i e n c e d judges,
l e ss
but
s i nc e the exper i e nced
c a n be
expe c ted to
s p e ak e r s do ,
j udge s w e r e non - n a t i ve
ho l d d i f f e r e n t
no c l e a r con c l us i on s
Ta rd i f a nd d ' A ng l e j a n
( 1 981 ) ,
s p e ak e r s a nd a s s u c h
l i ngu i s t i c va l u e s t h a n n a t i ve
c a n b e d rawn.
quoted
in
Ei senste i n
( 1983)
found
t h a t s e n t e n c e s s poke n by a s peak e r w i t h a s t rong e r Eng l i sh a c c e nt
i n h i s pronun c i a t i o n o f Fre nch we r e
s p e ak e r s t o b e
l e s s a c c e p t a b l e,
cons i d e r e d by
l e s s g r amma t i c a l
t i ng th a n the s ame s e nt e n c e s s p o k e n by a
a
n at i ve Fr e n c h
a nd more
i rr i t a­
non - n a t i ve s p e ak e r w i t h
l e s s p r o nou n c e d E ng l i sh a c c e n t .
Bre n n a n and
Bre n n a n
o f E ng l i sh a t t r i bu t e
( 1981a , b)
demo n s t r a t e d t h a t
l owe r s t a t u s to t hos e s pe ak e r s among 3 2 Me x­
i c a n-Ame r i c a ns a nd 4 A n g l o-Ame r i c a n s who we r e
t i ve
j udge s
to have s t ronger non-n a t i ve
used the de f i n i t ion o f
a s a ma n n e r o f
the s t a nd a rd .
s y nt a c t i c a l
( Th i s
a nd
de f i n i t ion
pronunc i a t i ons a s s o c i a t e d
a s we l l
accents
in
E ng l i sh .
f rom s t a ndard
l ex i ca l
i n c l ud e s
w i th s o c i a l
a s non - n a t i v e p r o n u n c i a t i o n s . )
l op e d a n
judge d by other n a­
a c ce n t g i ve n by G i l e s a nd Powes l a nd
pron u n c i a t i o n d i f f e r e n t
the grammat i c a l ,
n at i ve s p e ak e r s
i n t e r e s t i ng 2 -s t e p me t h o d o f
l e ve l s
Th ey
( 1 975 )
s p e e ch w i t h
cons i s t e n t w i th
t h e r e fore n o n -s t a ndard
a nd g eogra ph i c a l
Bre nnan
d i a l e ct s
a nd Bre n n a n d e v e ­
e s t i ma t i ng a c c e n t e d n e s s a s
fo l l ows:
1.
Thr e e
l i ngu i s t s r e l i ab l y
j udge t h e
a c c e nt e d n e s s o f s pe ak e r s
us i ng a s e ve n - p o i n t P r e l i m i na ry A c c e n t e d n e s s s c a l e.
2.
Judg e s
prov i d e d a s s e s sme nt s
ty p e s o f a c c e n t e d p r o n u n c i a t i o n.
A c c e nt edne s s
of
Th i s wa s
I nd e x.
-
1 1 4
the
-
r e l a t i ve freque n cy o f
then c a l cu l ated
18
t o an
Bre n n a n a n d
Bre n n a n
f ound t h a t
the A c c e nt edne s s
I nd e x wa s a s i g ­
n i f i c a n t p r e d i c t o r o f the Pr e l i m i n a ry A c c e nt e d n e s s
a c c e nt e d ne s s
l i s t e n e rs
a s s e ssme n t s
tra i ned
the
Rya n
a nd
l i s t e ne r s
i nv e s t i g a t i o n
Daws o n
( 1 975 )
Eng l i s h s p e e c h
l i sh b i l i ngu a l s .
Th e a c c e nt e d n e s s
c o rre l a t e d
wi th
the
a l ong
by n a i ve n a t i ve
the
s h owe d tha t
c a n g i ve re l i ab l e
a c c e nt edne s s o f
h i gh l y
s ame ma t e r i a l
a nd o f
i n a p r e v i ou s e x p e r i me n t .
An e ar l i e r e x p e r i me n t al
Bre n na n ,
of
sca l e ,
s ame
l i n e s by
n o n- l i ngu i s t i c a l l y
j udgeme n t s
o f the
degree o f
s amp l e s p r o d u c e d by S p a n i s h -Eng­
judg eme n t s
o c c urre n c e
of
we r e
found
spec i f i c
to b e
f e a t ur e s o f
a c c e nt e d p r o n u n c i at i o n .
The work o f Ry a n ,
Corso
2 . 1
( 1 978 )
C a rr a n z a a n d Mo f f i e
a nd Ry a n
a nd S e ba s t i a n
( 1 9 77 ) ,
( 1 980 )
S e ba s t i a n ,
d i s cussed
a l s o d e a l s w i th the r e l a t i o n sh i p b e twe e n d e gr e e
n e s s a nd n a t i ve s p e ak e r a t t i t ud e s
t o n o n- n a t i ve
of
Ry a n a nd
i n s e c t i on
a c c e n t ed­
s p e e ch .
2 . 5 At t i tude me a s ur eme n t
I n mo s t
of the
s t ud i e s d i s c u s s e d
i n t h e p r ev i o u s s e c t i o n n a t i ve
or s t a nd a rd s p e ak e r s were r e q u i r e d t o eva l u a t e n o n- n a t i ve o r n o n ­
s t a nd a rd s p e ak e rs.
simi l ar
i n mo s t
e x am i n i ng t h e
o f Ed i nburgh
s p e ak e r s '
Th e me t h o d o f e l i c i t i n g a t t i t ud e
stud i e s o f
att i t ude s
eva l ua t i o n
in
of
t o d i f fe r e n t
wh a t s h e re f e rr e d t o
pre s e n t e d
th i s k i nd .
as
s t a f f a n d s t ud e nt s a t
k i nd s of
of
For e x amp l e ,
j udg eme n t s
Roma i ne
(1 980 )
t h e U n i ve r s i ty
Ed i nburgh a c c e n t s
( s t a ndard
s t a n d a rd a nd n o n - s t a nd a rd s p e e c h )
Osgood ' s
O s g o od, S uc i
sema nt i c
a nd Ta n n e n b a um
-
1 15
-
d i fferent i a l ,
( 1 957 ) .
is
use d
f i rst
Th i s c o n s i s t e d
of
20
s e ve n-po i n t s c a l e s
who s e e nd
po i nt s re pre s e nt ed oppos i t e
chara c t er i s t i c s .
The judg e s
we r e r e qu i r e d
to
i nd i c a t e
t h e d e gr e e
a s s o c i a t e e a c h s p e ak e r w i t h e a c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .
i s t i c s we r e
a s pe c t s o f
(a)
c h o s e n to e l i c i t
the
The s e
chara c t er­
c o n c e r n i ng t h e
f o l l owing
l i s t e ne r s a t t i t ud e t o the s p e ak e r :
tra i ts:
P e r s o na l i ty
h o ne s t / d i s h o ne s t ;
n e ga t i ve / p o s i t i ve ;
f r i e nd l y / u n f r i e nd l y;
t ough / g e n t l e
e du c a t e d / u n e d u c a t e d ;
chara c t er i s t i c s :
St atus
(b)
e v a l ua t i o n s
t o wh i ch t h ey
l ower
c l ass /upper c l ass
(c)
Abs o l u t e
char a c t e r i s t i c s:
(d)
Spe e ch or
c od e
f orma l / i n f orma l ;
(e)
I d e n t i ty :
urban/rura l ;
a
y o u ng / o l d
m i l d/bro a d ;
p o l i t e / r ough ;
S c ott i sh/not
c l e a r/unc l e a r ;
s l o p py / c a r e f u l
S c o t t i sh ;
l i k e a n Ed i n­
l i k e a n Ed i nburgh p e r s o n
S o l i d a r i ty a nd
s p e ak / n o t
ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s:
i n c or r e c t / c or re c t ;
burgh p e r s o n / no t
(f)
m a s c u l i ne / f em i n i ne ;
l i ngu i s t i c
s e c ur i t y :
l i k e t h e way I t h i nk
f r i e nd o f m i n e / as
l i k e t h e way I wou l d
if
I
s p e ak;
I wou l d n' t wa n t
l i k e t o s p e ak / n o t
l i ke
as
the way
I
i f he or she
t h i nk I
c ou l d b e
t o know h i m o r h e r a t
al l ;
l i ke
l i ke
t h e way I
wou l d
t o s peak .
Edwa rds
( 1 977 )
used on l y n i ne
o p p o s e d p a i rs
c over t hr e e b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s o f
(a)
C ompe t e n c e:
(b)
Soc i a l
cha r a c t e r i s t i c s t o
p e r s o n a l i ty :
i nd u s t r i ou s / l a zy ;
amb i t i o u s / unamb i t i ou s ;
of
i n t e l l i g e n t / u n i n t e l l i g e nt ;
i mp or t a n t / u n i m p or t a n t
a t t r a c t i ve ne s s:
f r i e nd l y / u n f r i e nd l y ;
s e ns e o f h umo u r /
humo ur l e s s
(c)
Pers ona l
i n t egr i ty :
t ru s two r t hy / u ntrus two r t hy ;
-
1 1 6
-
h e l pfu l /
unhe l p f u l ;
g e n e r o u s / no t g e ne r o u s .
Edwa rds p o i n t e d
by Bourh i s ,
( 1 975 )
out
that
t h e s e t r a i ts have b e e n p r ev i o u s l y u s ed
G i l e s a n d Taj f e l
( 1 9 73 )
a nd L ambe r t ,
G i l es
a nd P i c a rd
.
Tu c k e r a nd
Lamb e r t
r e n t c a t e gor i e s
of
( 1969 ),
n a t i ve
o f Ame r i c a n Eng l i sh ,
i n a s t udy o f t h e a t t i t u d e s o f d i f f e ­
Ame r i c a n s t owa rd s
p e rf o rme d a p r e l i m i n a ry
groups s i mi l a r t o the groups
e s t ab l i sh wh i ch
they
of
use a s
u s e d by t h e grou p s
d e s c r i be " f r i e nd l i ne s s" a nd " s u c c e s s".
categor i es
i nves t i g a t i o n
p l a nned t o
ad j e c t i ve s we r e
s i n ce d i f f e r e n t
d i f f e r e n t var i et i e s
Th i s s e ems
j ud g e s a r e
( us i ng
j udge s )
to
concerned t o
a
l og i c a l
step
l ike l y t o u s e d i f f erent
adje ct i ve s t o de n o t e t h e s ame c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
W i l l i ams
mode l
( 1 9 74 )
a nd C a r r a nza a nd Rya n
i nvo l v i ng
d i f f erent
Lamb e r t
two-d i me n s i o n s :
f r om s u c c e s s a nd
( 1 9 6 9»
.
s t a t us
Ident i f i c a t i on o f
a s a range ,
ty p i c a l l y a s s ume
An
ers are ab l e t o
va r i e t i e s
( mo r e
too
i n Tu ck e r a nd
s c a l i ng pro c e dure s
r a t h e r than a p o i nt.
to
i n t h e p r e v i o us s e c t i o n
l a ng u a g e va r i e t i e s
a r e a v e ry
a t t i t ude s t o t h e g r o u p s who s p e ak t h e
i mp or t a n t
( no t
a c c e nt or i g i n
t h a t a t t i t ud e s
good re f l e c t i on o f
j udgme n t a l
a nd s o l i da r i ty
f r i e nd l i n e s s d i s c u s s ed
Th e eva l u a t i ve r e a c t i o n s t ud i e s d i s c u s s e d
va r i e ty .
d i s c us s a
W i l l i ams s ug g es t s t h e u s e o f
wh i c h s p e c i f y a t t i t ud e
2 . 6
( 1 975 )
part
or
of
t h i s a s s ump t i o n
l e s s pre c i s e l y )
i nvo l ve d .
-
1 17
-
is
that
the
i d e n t i fy t h e
l a ng u a g e
l i s t e n­
l a ng u a g e
P r e v i o us
s t ud i es
h ave
i d e n t i fy a r e c o rd e d
1 978 ,
Ry a n
1 983 ,
s c r i bes f i ve
n a t i ve
(e .g.
vo i c e
F l ege
w i th
as
1 9 84 a nd
s t a nd a rd
or non-n a t i ve ;
Roma n c e,
if
S l av i c ) ;
wh a t r e g i o n a l /so c i a l
u p p e r c l ass S p a i n ,
O t h e r s t ud i e s ,
or
l a ng u a g e var i e ty ,
a t t i t udes
a c c e n ts
e rs
Bre n n a n
a nd
to
we r e
l i st e n e rs .
i de n t i fy
P r i gg e
de­
n o n­
n o n- s t a ndard ,
l a n g u a g e g r o u p?
l a ng u a g e ? ;
(e .g.
be t t e r
ab l e
P a l me r
( 1973 )
to
V i e t n ame s e a c c e n t s ,
a nd Ry a n
howe v e r ,
( 1 9 75 )
e x am i n e d Ame r i c a n
Euro p e a n a nd n a t i ve
l ooked a t
n a t i ve a t t i t udes
i n c l ud i ng Fre n c h ,
G i l es
Eng l i sh ,
North Ame r i c a n,
f ound t ha t
i de n t i fy a c c e n t
f ound t h a t
S p a n i sh -a c c e n t e d
Carranza
Eastern
( 1 970 )
I nd i a n and G e rma n .
have d e a l t
f or S p a n i sh - a c c e n ted Eng l i sh .
I t a l i an ,
a nd G i l es
me t h o d o l ogy ,
b u t usu a l l y o n l y r e g a rd i ng
e . g.
( 1 9 74 ) ,
a nd f or e i g n a c c e n t s
I ta l i an ,
bas i c
of
l a ng u a g e d o e s h e u s e ?
s p e e ch ,
( 1 981 )
Norweg i a n,
i n Eng l i sh ,
to r e g i o n a l
We l sh ,
a nd
Ha n l ey
if
( 1 983 )
l owe r c l ass Me x i c a n-Ame r i c a n ) .
one
Mu l a c ,
i de nt i f i ca t i on
that
t o n o n -n a t i ve
Bre n n a n
i n the
wh i ch
Ry a n
Joh a nsso n
1 981 ) .
o f t e n us i ng ma t ch e d gu i se
n o n - n a t i ve
e . g.
i s t h e s p e a k e r' s n a t i ve
di a l ect of
a b i l i ty t o
S c ov e l
n o n - n a t i ve ,
wha t
( c. f .
n o n -s t a nd a rd ;
w i t h a t t i t udes
a nd
n a t i ve s p e a k e rs '
n o n - n a t i ve
l e ve l s o f s p e c i f i city
s p e a k e rs :
na t i ve
dea l t
o l de r l i s t e n­
o r i g i ns t h a n y o u ng e r
n a t i ve Eng l i sh s p e ak e rs c ou l d
but
n o t Ara b i c ,
a l t h o ugh they r a t e d the
L i ng a l a or
a c c e n t g r o u ps d i f f e ­
re n t l y.
In t h e p r e s e nt
t h e way
proje c t we a r e ,
amo ng o t h e r t h i ngs ,
i n wh i c h n a t i ve Swe des '
f l e c t the i r
un l i k e l y t h a t
a t t i t udes to
a t t i t udes t o
i mm i g r a n t g r o u ps.
n a t i ve s p e ak e rs o f
-
1 18
Swe d i sh
-
c o n c e r n e d w i th
f o r e i g n a c c e n t s re­
I n t u i t i ve l y ,
have t h e
i t se ems
s ame a t t i t ud e
e i ther t o
al l
m i n or i t i e s
i n Swe d e n .
to
n o n - n a t i ve
n o n- n a t i ve
var i e t i e s o f
C l ear l y ,
m i n o r i ty
groups
no n-na t i ve s p e e c h d e p e nd t o a
ne s s w i t h
of
the
non-s t a nd ard ,
s p e ak e r tha n
or
can
I f he
te l l
is
he
tha t the
Eng l i sh .
i nve s t i g a t i o n o f t h e
to
( re g a rd i ng t h e
ext e nt
it
is
W i th th i s
i de n t i fy .
the s p e e ch
is
re a c t d i f f erent l y t o the
or a
is
a m i dd l e-c l a s s
s p e ak e r o f
p roje c t ' s
att i t ude s
i mp or t a n t
to
f i rs t
to
k n ow
a c c e n t s d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f n a t i ve s p e ak e r s
to
pr e c i s e ­
Ame r i c a n
f u ndame n t a l
t o wh i ch nat i ve Swe d e ' s a t t i t u d e s
the i r
o bv i o u s l y
s p e ak e r s
i d e nt i fy t he or i g i n
s p e ak e r
f r om Cy p r u s ,
f o r e i g n a c c e nts r e f l e c t
groups )
ab l e t o
may
o f G r e ek
que s t i on ,
n a t i ve
can on l y hear that
n a t i ve s p e ak e r
I n our
of
c o ns i d e r a b l e e x t e nt o n t h e
n o n- na t i ve ,
i f he
a t t i t ud e s
e thn i c
a s e l i c i t e d u s i ng r e c ord i n g s o f
w i t h t h e n a t i ve sp e ak e r
t h e n o n - na t i ve a c c e n t.
Swe d i sh or t o a l l
of
e t h n i c m i n or i ty
wh i ch n o n - na t i ve
Swe d i s h
are a b l e
i n f o rma t i o n we c a n p r o c e e d to a n swe r t h e
q u e s t i o n o f wh e t h e r Swe d e s have d i f f e r e n t
a t t i t ud e s
to d i f f e rent
n o n-nat i ve a c c e nt s.
3.
Exper i me n t s
3. 1
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f f o r e i gn a c c e n t s
Ma t e r i a l :
d a t a ba s e
1 988 )
a nd
f i rs t h a l f
Sun "
read
A t a p e wa s
( Engs t ra nd
pre p a r e d
1 987 ,
o t h e r r e c orded
( about
in
s p e a k e r s o f Swe d i sh ,
n a t i ve S c a n i a n
Eng s t r a nd
ma t e r i a l ,
2 5 s e c o nd s )
Swe d i s h
one
d i a l ect ,
f r om t h e mas t e r t a p e s o f
by
of
a nd
c o n t a i n i ng r e c ord i ngs
of
the
the t ext
" Th e Nor t h W i nd a nd t h e
29 d i f f erent
n o n - n a t i ve a nd 5 n a t i ve
once w i th
a c c e nt .
-
IRIS
C u n n i ngh am-A n d e r s s o n
o f wh om r e ad t h e t e x t
a nd
the
1 19
-
twi c e ,
once
in his
a s i mu l a t e d Ma l a r va l l ey
The adva n t a g e s o f u s i ng
hav i ng no n-n a t i ve
gat i on o f
may o c c ur
ma t er i a l
c aused
a nd
s p e e ch;
i ng s
al l
a
s p e ak e r s ,
is
r e c o rd i ngs o f
i n the
t h e r e f ore
p r e s uma b l y
t h a t t h e s p e ak e r s '
of
the i r
a c c e nt
s u i t ab l y n e u t r al
cho s e n
d i f f i cu l t
in
Swe d i sh
l i ngu i s t i c
t a p e var i e d
i n the
a s other
to
wa s
e x c l u d e d,
c o n s i de r a b l y
in
the
the
l ess
l a rge s t
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
-
f ar
a l t h o ugh
a ccents ,
( a nd
a nd
as poss i b l e
s p e ak e r s
the a c cents
Th e s p eak e r s we r e
J ama i c a n woma n
Swe d i sh-Turk i sh man
J a p a ne s e ma n
Swa h i l i ma n
K o r e a n ma n
Kurd i sh woma n
Swe d i s h - Ame r i c a n m a n
G r e e k ma n
N . Swe d i sh ma n
P o l i s h ma n
S c a n i a n ma n
F i n n i s h - Swe d i sh ma n
B e nga l i ma n
Ma l ar va l l e y woma n
Ru s s i a n wom a n
G e rma n ma n
C z e c h ma n
1 20 -
i mm i -
f am i l i a r
f o l l ow i n g o r d e r :
F i nn i sh ma n
S p a n i s h ma n
Po l i s h woma n
Fre n c h ma n
Turk i sh woma n
L a p p i s h ma n
S p a n i sh woma n
Fre n ch woma n
S p a n i sh woma n
G r e e k woma n
P e r s i a n woma n
A r a b i c ma n
S e r b o c r o a t i a n woma n
K i nya rwa nda woma n
T i gr i ny a ma n
S c a n i a n- a c c e n t e d Ma l a r
Yoruba m a n
Norwe g i a n woma n
I R I S data-
I n a dd i t i o n ,
s t r e ng t h .
the
ma ny r e c ord-
SPEAKERS :
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
i n f o rma n t s'
i n the
i d e n t i fy )
as
i n c o n-
vers i ons o f
f rom t h e
s u ch t h a t
b a ckground.
f l u e n cy wa s v e ry p o o r we r e
e rr o r s wh i ch
t h e s ame o r t h ograph i c
f rom t h e ma t e r i a l
I R I S d a t a ba s e
more
i nve s t i -
a c c e nt w i thout the
t h e n o n- n a t i ve
gra n t g r o u ps we re r e p r e s e n t ed a s we l l
r e c o rd e d
f or e i g n
f ocused
f i rs t l y ,
s o t h e i r u t t e r a n c e s a r e ma x i -
the t ext
r e a d i l y ava i l a b l e
c o nt a i n ed
on the
a l l ows a
s e c o nd l y ,
Th e n o n - na t i ve s p e ak e r s we r e
wh o s e
c ons i derab l e :
sy n t a c t i c a nd s ema n t i c
s p e e c h;
t h i rd l y ,
f ou r t h l y ,
ty p i c a l
are
l o ng e n ough t o p r ov i de a g o o d s amp l e o f
text w e r e
ba s e .
b y the
u s e d by
ma l l y c omp a r a b l e;
t e nt ,
f e a t ures o f
i n n o n- n a t i ve
is
t ext
s p e a k e rs r e ad a t e xt
t h e pho ne t i c
c omp l i c a t i o n s
such a
I n f o rma n t s :
c a p a b i l i t i e s r e g ard i ng t h e
have d i f f erent
to
of
a nd t h e amo u n t
l i ve s,
f am i l i a r i t y
A f t e r s e ve ra l
thre e g r o u p s
n o n - n a t i ve
i nd i v i du a l
n a t i ve
to opt imi se
1 8 -y e a r o l d gymn a s i um s t ud e n t s
in
Upps a l a
part s
of
T i erp
(a
(a
l a rge
t h e wor l d )
sma l l
s t ude n t s;
a nd
c o n t r i bu t e
a l t hough o t h e r
t h e s t i mu l us t a p e,
s p e ak e r s o f Swe d i sh we r e u s e d a s
p a ne l s :
(a)
i n f o rma n t
i n forma n t ' s e x p e r i e n c e .
p i l o t e x p e r i me n t s
of
a c c e n t s.
of
t own w i th ma ny
- two c l a s s e s
of
l i s t e ne r
n o n -huma n i t i e s s ub j e c t s
i mm i gr a n t s
f r om d i f f e r e n t
1 7 a nd 1 9 s t ud e n t s;
a nd
t own 5 0 km f r om Up p s a l a w i t h f ew i mm i grant s )
(c)
15
t e a chers
non­
d e n s i ty o f
the
c o nt a c t he h a s w i th t h e m mus t
w i t h d i f f erent
f a c t or s may a f f e c t t h e
i de nt i f i c a t i on of
a r e a wh e r e t h e
the
in
l a ngu a g e s
other
of
s p e ak e r s
n a t i ve s p e ak e r s
of
l i k e l y that
s e ems
it
I n t u i t i ve l y,
accents .
na t i ve
c a t egor i e s
di f f e r e n t
Obv i o u s l y,
of
Swe d i sh a s a s e c o nd
(b)
- 29
l a nguage
in
U p p s a l a.
Fre e
r e s po n s e
i de nt i f i c a t i ons .
she e t
wa s
For
ha l f
d e ve l o p e d
about e a ch of
Two
me thod:
the
me t h o d s
U p p s a l a s t ude n t s
the
whe r e
we r e u s e d
a n a n swe r
3 5 vo i c e s t h e
l i s t e ne r s h e a rd :
(a)
I s t h e speak e r a n a t i ve s p e a k e r o f Swe d i sh ?
(b)
If
(c)
t h e a nswer t o
(a)
of
the
Wh a t
is
the
wa s
"n o".
t h em t o a n swe r
(b),
t h e s t ude n t s we r e g i ve n a ma p o f
the
numb e rs r e p r e s e n t i ng
"Fa r E a s t ",
Ea s t e r n E u ro p e" e t c .
l a nguage we r e a sk e d
wh i c h
part
f rom ?
s p e ak e r ' s mo t h e r t o ng u e ?
wor l d w i th
c o nd
( 17 ) ,
t h e s ame t hr e e q u e s t i o n s we r e a s k e d
wor l d d o e s t h e s p e ak e r c ome
To he l p
to e l i c i t a c c e n t
the
-
1 2 1
are a s
such
a s "No r t h Ame r i c a".
Th e t e a ch e r s o f Swe d i s h a s a s e ­
s ame
-
que s t i ons,
except
that
f or
t h em ,
(b )
wa s
changed
to :
If
l a ng u a g e g r o u p d o e s
the
wh i ch p a r t
wor l d d o e s
of
the
p r ov i d e d f or t h e
s p e ak e r s
i ng
in
not
a l ways a n swe r q ue s t i o n
ers,
the
wa s
the degre e
of
(b) .
l a nguage
t h i s e x p e r i me n t ,
S c a nd i n av i a
C
C.
E
E . Eur o p e ,
G
A fr i ca
& S . Ame r i c a ,
is
S . Eur o p e
c orre c t l y
It
i de n t i f i e d .
N . Ame ri c a ,
D
N . A fr i c a ,
M i dd l e E a s t
F
F a r Ea s t,
S . E. A s i a
H
I nd i a n s Ub- c o n t i ne n t
of
e a ch
N . Eur o p e ,
a bove
e i gh t
zones .
pup i l s
Swah i l i
N o rwe g i a n ,
the
t h e s p e ak e r s '
seen
in
Greek ,
a nd Yoruba a c c e n t s
i de nt i f i ed
or i g i n ,
Turk i sh ,
i n t h e a p pr o p r i a t e
l a ng u a g e s
t h a n we r e
f i gure 3 .
-
1 22
-
the
At
l e a s t 40%
G e rma n ,
wh i l e
Kurd i sh ,
t e a ch e r s we r e more o f t e n a b l e
n a t i ve
As can
t h e F i n n i s h,
B r i t i sh Eng l i s h,
a nd Rus s i a n s p e a k e rs' z o n e o f
Mor e ove r,
i de n t i f i e d
c o n s i de r a b l y be t t e r t h a n t h e p u p i l s a t
t e a c h e r s a nd the
c o u l d a l s o p l a c e S p a n i sh ,
Aus t r a l i a
l i s t e ne r group
of
n a t i ve Swe d i sh ,
For t h e pur­
B
o r i g i n o f t h e s p e a k e rs .
Arab i c
the t e a c h­
i n t o e i gh t z o n e s :
i d e n t i fy i ng t h e g e o gr a ph i c a l
p i sh ,
and d i d
i s howe v e r p os s i b l e t o c omp a r e
i n t e rms o f t h e
the t e a c h e r s we r e
both the
(c) ,
Th i s w a s a l s o t ru e o f
the wor l d wa s d i v i d e d
s h ows how ma ny p e r c e n t
be seen ,
or
s t u d e n t s we r e d i s a p p o i nt ­
s poken was
S ov i e t
e a ch s p e ak e r
to ,
a c c ur a cy w i th wh i ch t h e p a r t o f t h e wor l d wh e r e t h e
A
1
wh i ch
l a ng u a g e b e l o n g t o ? N o ma p w a s
f r om t h e
l e s s e r e x t e nt.
s p e a k e r' s n a t i ve
pos e s o f
" n o" ,
l a ngu a g e b e l o n g
the s e n s e t h a t t h ey s e l d om a nswe r e d q u e s t i o n
t h ough t o a
Ta b l e
n a t i ve
(a)
t e a chers .
The r e s u l t s o bt a i ne d
R e s u l t s:
t h e a n swe r t o
part
the
Fre n ch ,
t e a ch e rs
P o l i sh ,
of
Lap­
Cze ch ,
t h e wo r l d .
t o c orre c t l y s p e c i fy
p u p i l s,
as wi l l
be
Table
ZONE
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
D
D
D
D
E
E
E
E
E
F
F
G
G
G
G
H
ACCENT
F i nn i sh
L a p p i sh
Swe d i sh 1 ( b i ! i ng Sw-Tur )
Swe d i sh 2 (No r t h e r n )
Swe d i sh 3 ( S c an i an )
Swe d i sh 4 ( F i nn i sh�Swe d i s h )
Swe d i sh 5 ( Up p l and )
Swe d i sh 6 ( S c an i a n -Up p l a nd )
Norwe g i a n
Br i t i sh E ng l i sh
Ame r i c a n E ng l i sh
G e rman
S p an i sh 1 ( S p a i n )
S p a n i sh 2 ( Co l umb i a )
S p a n i sh 3 ( Uruguay )
French 1
Fre n c h 2
Greek 1
Greek 2
Turk i sh
Kurd i sh
Pers i an
Arab i c
Po l i sh 1
P o l i sh 2
S e rbo-C r o at
Rus s i a n
Cze ch
J a p ane s e
Kor e a n
Swah i 1 i
K i ny a rwa nda
T i gr i ny a
Yoruba
B e nga l i
Gu i d e d r e s po n s e
meth o d :
r ema i n i ng groups
of
t e d r e a d i ng s ,
a nd a
f i gure ,
poss i b l e
w i th
F i gur e s
t o the
f orm
s i m i l ar
n a t i ve
l angua g e
they we re
e n c ou r a g e d t o
they we r e
unsure .
The
a nd 2 9
to
the
the
p l ace
-
1 23
-
ma t r i x
f or
cross
Th ey
the
s h own
s p e ak e r s
i n the
l i st e d
the t op .
The
i n t h e b o x c o rre s p o nd i ng
e a ch s p e ak e r
c ro s s e s
b ox e s w i t h
T i erp pup i l s .
s p e ak e r acr o s s
they be l i e ved
for the
nat i v e Swe d i s h a nd a c c e n -
l a nguage s
i n s t ru c t e d t o p l a c e a
n a t i ve
a nd 2 s h ow the r e s u l ts
s ame t a p e w i th 35
down o n e s i d e a nd t h e numb e r o f
pu p i l s we re
1
1 9 U p p s a l a p up i l s
we r e te sted u s i ng th e
TEACHERS
100
83
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
33
83
50
50
100
50
100
67
17
50
83
a
67
83
17
33
83
83
17
a
67
a
33
67
a
STUDENTS
94
59
94
1 00
94
100
100
94
94
94
18
53
12
24
29
18
71
18
29
12
12
a
47
6
6
a
47
6
6
a
a
a
6
17
a
so l id
i n mo r e
f r ame s
t o have a nd
th a n o n e box
if
a r e t h o s e wh i ch
we re
crossed
by a t
l e a s t 40% o f
a r e wr i t t e n
i n bo l d t y p e f a c e .
t h e numb e r
of
pu p i l s
f or e a ch s p e ak e r .
re p r e s e n t
pup i l s ,
s um o f
the
Th e r e s u l t s
n a t i ve
( i n T i erp ,
t a i ned .
e a ch p o s s i b l e
s i m i l ar t o
l east
Swe d i sh ,
of
the
As c a n b e s e e n
40%
Swe d i s h wa s m i s t ak e n
of
the
f i gu r e
of
the
a c c e nt ;
Be nga l i ,
a nd Swah i l i ,
pup i l s ,
s e ems
but
a t t r i bu t e d
Eng l i sh p r i or t o t h e i r a rr i va l
wa s s l i gh t l y mor e o f t e n
mark e d
not i c e that
l i ke l y t h a t
Swah i l i
i n c orre c t
F i n l a nd­
Br i t i sh a nd
( i n the
to
case o f
t h e s p e ak e r s
i n Swe d e n ) ;
K i ny a rwa nda
a l so got qu i te a
by
Yo rub a
t h e Up p s a l a
f ew vo t e s -
it
" A f r i can " ;
o n e o f t h e P o l i sh s p e ak e r s wa s m i s t ak e n f or S e rb o c r o a t
i n Uppsa l a
group ) ;
a c orre c t
the
i de nt i f i ed
a nd t h e
s p e ak e r wa s s i mp l y
i de n t i ­
i de n t i f i e d a s
( ag a i n ,
the
as
free
i de n t i fy
the pup i l s :
Be nga l i
l e arned
c ou l d
f o l l ow i ng
a c c e n t s we r e h e a rd a s Ame r i c a n o r Br i t i sh
be
the
t h e wro ng a n swe r s ob­
Swah i l i
hav i ng
r e p r e s e nt
a l s o c o rr e c t l y
l e a s t 4 0% o f
can
p r e s e n t e d to t h e
pu p i l s
f i g ur e s ,
f or a F i n n i sh
th i s
f i gure
L a p p i sh a n d F i nn i sh a c c e n t s
a n ana lys i s
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s w e r e ma d e by a t
the
l a nguage .
s p e ak e rs wa s
f rom t h e
l a ng u a g e
t ho s e o bt a i ne d u s i ng t h e
Norweg i a n ,
me t h o d p e rm i t s
n a t i ve
a t t h e t o p a nd b o t t om o f
t h e r i gh t
one of the Greek
Th i s
t h e b o x e s r e pr e s e n t
wh i c h t h e s p e ak e rs we r e
we re v e ry
At
Th e c o r r e c t a n swe r s
in
f o r e a ch p o s s i b l e n a t i ve
r e s p o n s e me thod .
f i ed .
in
a nd t h e numb e r s a t
res pons e s
Fr e n ch ,
numb e r s
pup i l s .
The numb e r s
who c ro s s e d
Th e
order
the
i de n t i f i c a t i on o f
other
P o l i sh
s p e ak e r
Ame r i c a n Eng l i sh
Norwe g i a n s p e ak e r ,
s p e ak e r
n a t i ve
t h e i r n a t i ve
the Uppsa l a
s t ud e n t s t o
a n d b y t h e T i e r p p up i l s t o have
1 26
-
l a ng u a g e ;
( wh o s p ok e Swe d i sh w i t h o n l y a
wa s be l i e ved by
-
l a nguage
a nd the A r a b i c s p e ak e r we r e
i n Up p s a l a a s hav i ng Turk i s h a s
s l i ght Ame r i c a n a c c e n t )
be a
t h e s p e ak e r ' s
a ny o f a
l a rge
number o f
n a t i ve
but
l a ng u a ge s ,
l a ng u a g e .
Th e
Ame r i c a n
pup i l s
T i erp
s p e ak e r ' s uvu l a r ARA as
not
E ng l i s h ,
as h i s
i nt e r p r e t e d t h e K i ny a rwa nda
a s i gn that she
wa s a
n a t i ve
s p e ak e r o f
Fr e n ch .
I n order t o
fac i l i tate
c omp a r i s o n b e twe e n t h e r e s u l t s a ch i e v e d by
t h e t e a c h e r s o f Swe d i s h a s a s e c o n d
T i e r p a nd
the
Up p s a l a ,
f o rm o f
other
f o rm o f
f i gure s :
that
ers on l y
in
the p u p i l s
Th e r e s u l t s o f
we r e r e a l l y
the
qu i t e
l a ng u a g e we re a b l e
ly
( as
s h own
in
or
the
of
or not
poor .
to
f i gure
l itt l e
two
al l .
in
f o l l ow i ng p o i n t s
3) ,
t i me s ,
l a ng u a g e
Th e pu p i l s
t e a c h e r s we r e
wh i l e
Th i s a l s o
t h e t e a ch­
c a s e s the
t e a ch e r s
f am i l i e s .
i n the
of
prev i ous s e c t i on
Swe d i sh
a numb e r o f
a s a s e c o nd
a c c e n t s c orre c t ­
ord i n a ry n a t i ve s p e ak e r s ,
a c c u r a cy .
i nexper i e n c e
c ou l d
on ly
Wh i l e t h i s may b e d u e t o the
( t h e i r a ve r a g e
re s u l t s .
c l asses
12 7
of
-
a s repre­
i d e n t i fy 5 - 6
age wa s
r e a s o n t o be l i eve that o l d e r
-
i n the
l a ngu age s
Wh i l e t e a ch e r s
mu c h be t t e r
new
r e s u l t s w i th
a ny h e l p
the
I n s ome
o f gymn a s i um p up i l s
years ) ,
is
at
s evera l
i d e n t i fy q u i t e
a nd
on
a l s o pre s e nt e d
the pup i l s .
s quare s ;
t h e wor l d o r
f or e i gn
i n f o rma n t s youth
f orme d
in
p o s s i b l e a n swe r s t hems e l ve s .
a c c e n t s w i t h a ny d e gr e e o f
wou l d a ch i eve
Th e
n o t g i ve n
e x p e r i me n t s d i s c u s s e d
s e n t e d by the g r ou p s
there
are
3.
a s we r e
mor e
c o u l d gue s s
gue s s e d o n c e ,
I de n t i f i c a t i o n o f
l a nguage s
one
t h i nk o f
on ly spec i f i ed parts
3. 2
f i gu r e
Th e t e a ch e r s we r e
p o s s i b l e n a t i ve
r e qu i re d t o
in
resu l ts
s t ud e n t s
i n m i nd whe n c omp ar i ng t h e t e a c h e r s '
had o n l y t o c r o s s
me a n t
t e a ch e r s '
a c o n f u s i o n ma t r i x
shou l d b e borne
the
the
l a ng u a g e a nd t h e
Another
gymn a s i um
1 8- 1 9
i n f o rma n t s
e x p e r i me n t wa s p e r­
s t ud e n t s
i n Up p s a l a
( p a ra l l e l
to see
c l as s e s to the other c l as s e s ,
if
t h ey c ou l d r e c og n i s e
f or e i gn a c c e n t s .
i ng s
of
l i Th e
l a ng u a g e s wa s
A
tape
North
used a s
a nd
the
free
a ga i n h e r e .
response
des c r i bed
t hr e e
ph i c a l
zone
i n f orma n t s ,
ma n t s ,
but
not
c orr e c t l y .
The
( see
f rom t h e
1)
2)
20
re ad-
( t h e who l e t e x t )
in 25
n ame d c or r e c t l y ,
s h own
of
in
i de n t i f i ed the
f rom t h e me thod
t ab l e
n ame d c o r re c t l y by a t
by a t
a nd
who
( ad a p t e d
l a ng u a g e s p l a c e d
p e r c e nt ag e s
Th e r e c o r d e d ma t e r i a l
pu p i l s
are
l a ng u a g e s
pre v i ous s e c t i on )
3)
2 .
The
l east
i n t h e c or r e c t g e og r a l east
40% of
l a ngua g e s
not
the
i n f o r-
i de n t i f i e d
i de n t i f i c a t i o n s a r e s h own b e s i de
l a ng u a g e n ame . Tab l e 2
LANGUAGE REGOGNI SED
Norwe g i a n 1 0 0%
Eng l i sh ( Br i t i sh ) 1 0 0 %
Eng l i s h ( Ame r i c a n ) 1 0 0%
G e rma n ( No r t h ) 1 0 0%
G e rma n ( Au s t r i a n ) 9 0%
F i nn i sh 1 0 0%
Ru s s i a n 8 5%
Fr e n ch 1 0 0%
Swe d i s h 1 0 0%
D a n i sh 1 0 0%
S p a n i s h ( A rge n t i n a ) 7 0%
S p a n i sh ( S p a i n ) 8 0 %
As
speakers '
gu i d e d r e s p o n s e me t h o d s we r e u s e d
f r e e re s p o n s e me t h o d
c o l umns r e p r e s e n t :
the
the
the Sun il
i n the prev i ous s e c t i on )
40% o f
d i f f erent
I R I S databas e .
and
The r e s u l t s
l a ng u a g e s u s i ng t h e
29
l a ngu a g e s a ny b e t t e r t h a n
s t i mu l us ma t e r i a l .
wa s mo s t l y o bt a i n e d f r om t h e
Both
f or e i gn
c o n t a i n i ng
W i nd
a n d s u p p o s e d l y s i m i l ar ) ,
can b e s e e n ,
n ame d
c o rr e c t l y
t h o s e s h own
pup i l s ,
it
ZONE RECOGN I SED
A r a b i c 6 5%
Swah i l i 6 5 %
Cze ch 80%
G r e ek 7 5 %
P o l i s h 8 5%
J a p a ne s e 8 5%
Kore a n 9 0%
P o r t ugue s e 7 5%
Du t c h 8 0%
P e r s i a n ma l e 5 5%
i s on l y the
by
i n f i gure
the s e
mo s t
f am i l i a r
s t ude n t s .
4 a ch i e v e d
by the
u s i ng a gu i d e d r e s po n s e a n swe r
we r e r e q u i r e d t o c r o s s t h e
l a ng u a g e ( s )
-
1 29
-
C omp a r e
NOT REGOGN I SED
P e r s i a n f ema l e
L a p p i sh
Turk i sh
B e ng a l i
K i ny a rwa nda
T i gr i ny a
Yoruba
l a nguag e s t h a t
the s e r e s u l t s w i th
r e ma i n i ng c l a s s
f o rm ,
wh e r e
they
are
of
19
the
i n f orma n t s
t h o ugh t
t h e y we r e
FlIiIIE 4. CalfUlilil Mtril f.. 1 .... idlntificlti.
Speaker no:
Finnish
Lappish
SlIIedish
Norlllegian
Danish
Bri ti sh English
Alerican English
-
-
Polish
I'-[
I�i
-
Kinyarlllanda
Voruba
Speaker no:
-
-
-
-
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r-- l-I-
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8 11 21 1 -26 5 13 -7 9 29 3 17 14 27 15 18 10 6 19 7
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-
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Korean
Tigrinha
l�
6 :; 3
-
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Persian
SlIIahili
-
==
t2--
1
Turkish
Bengali
-
-�E: = 7 ��19 17
Czech
Japanese
-
-
Russian
Arabic
-
- --
-
Portuguese
Greek
-=
-
== =-
Dutch
French
19 _1111 ,..i ll.
8 11 21 1 26 5 13 7 9 29 3 17 14 27 15 18 10 6 19 2 12 16 20 25 22 4 24 23 28
19 17
1
31
19
19
1
Ii9
-F1
Gerlln
Spanish
-
--
=
=
F
=
r
�r
h e a r i ng .
guage s
Th e s e
to
s t ude n t s
s t ud e n t s ,
cho o s e
f r om
c o rr e c t l y
Ame r i c a n Eng l i sh ,
Fre n c h ,
i de n t i f i e d
Au s t r i a n a nd
Swe d i s h ,
D a n i sh ,
but
J a p a n e s e a nd
K o re a n .
f our A f r i c a n
l a ng u a g e s
a l so
a c h i eved poor
re su l t s
gu i de d
i n f o rma n t s ,
it
At
l east
o n l y No rwe g i a n ,
North
G e rma n ,
l a n­
40% o f
Br i t i s h a nd
F i nn i sh ,
Rus s i a n ,
as
La p p i sh ,
Dut c h ,
Czech ,
The
Gre ek ,
T i gr i ny a wa s
f or
i de n t i f i e d by n ame ,
the A f r i c a n
is
mor e
Po l i sh ,
the on l y one o f
g r o u p u s i ng t h e
re s po n s e
s i nc e
resu l t s .
poss i b l e
a nd P e n i n s u l a r S p a n i sh ,
t o be
Afr i can .
not
l ist of
Arge n t i ne
A l t h ough
i de n t i f i ed a s
the
we r e g i ve n a
a ch i eve d b e t t e r
other group ,
tha t
wh o
al l
the
t h em w e r e
f r e e r e s p o n s e me thod
l a ng u a g e s .
s u i t ab l e
i s e v i de n t l y d i f f i c u l t
of
the
Th i s s ug g e s t s
f or u s e w i t h n a i ve
f or t h em
t o t h i nk o f
l a ng u a g e name s .
3 . 3 A c c e nt e d n e s s me a s ureme n t
As
wa s
d i s cus s e d
a c c e n t s may we l l
t o n o n - n a t i ve
a c c e n t e dne s s
in
be
s e c t i on
a s i gn i f i cant
s p e ak e r s .
i s be s t
a c c e n t s t r e ng t h
cus sed
It
on
ma ny
n a t ur e o f
( 1981a , b)
a c c e nt e dne s s a s
j ud g e d
w i th a c c e nt edne s s
a c c e nt e d ne s s
n o n - na t i ve
n a t i ve a t t i t u d e s
h oweve r a l t og e t h e r c l e ar h ow
An
i mp r e s s i o n
of
a
f ew mark e d d ev i a t i o n s
l es s
a
s e r i ous
c e rt a i n
f rom t h e
dev i a t i ons .
f or e i g n a c c e n t w i l l
be
Th e
d i s­
i n s e c t i on 4 .
A sma l l - s c a l e e x p e r i me n t b a s e d
a n d Bre n n a n
pred i c tor o f
i s not
may b e ba s e d o n a
the pre c i s e
further
t h e s t r e ng t h o f
t o be me a s ur e d .
n a t i ve p r o n u n c i a t i o n o r
q ue s t i o n o f
2 .4,
c a n be
as
wa s
on the
des i gned t o
by
l i ngu i s t s
j ud g e d
by n a i ve
work r e p o r t e d
test
wi l l
-
1 3 1
-
t h e hy p o t he s i s
c or r e l a t e
i n f o rma n t s .
q u a n t i f i e d q u i t e s i mp l y .
i n Bre n n a n
If
F i rs t l y ,
that
p o s i t i ve l y
th i s
i s so ,
a n a t t emp t
wa s ma d e t o e l i c i t
The
a c c e n t e dn e s s
i n f orma n t s we r e a g r o u p o f
no n-huma n i t i e s
p o rt e d )
s ub j e c t s
a c c ent
i n f o rma n t s
ma l e s p e ak e r s
to
who
Th e
me n t s o f
the
part i c i pated
i n ear l y
j ud g e d t h e a c c e n t e d n e s s o f
i mme d i a t e l y b e f or e
They he ard t h e r e c ord i n g s o f
j udge a s e c o nd t i me
Me thod :
i n f orma n t s .
1 8 -ye ar o l d gymn a s i um p u p i l s o f
a l so
t h e y h a d h e a rd
c a t i o n e x p e r i me n t .
we r e
28
f rom n a i ve
( u nre -
i d e nt i f i c a t i o n e x p e r i me nt s .
Th e
Ma t e r i a l :
j udgeme n t s
i n f orma n t s
n i ne o f
i n the
the
i de nt i f i -
t h e s p e ak e r s they
i n a new o r d e r .
we re g i ve n
a n a n swe r s h e e t w i t h s t a t e -
f o l l ow i ng k i nd :
SPEAKER 1
The s p e aker has no
1
f ore i gn a c c e nt
Th e
i n f o rma n t s we r e
c or r e s p o nd e d t o
f or e i gn
2
3
i n s t ru c t e d
t h e d e gr e e
me n t s a t e a c h e nd o f
no
The s p e aker has a
5
t o c i rc l e
s u ch
of
t h e s p e ak e r s h e a rd
ave r a g e
of
s h own
as
1
are
s h own
t h e a c c e nt e d n e s s
wh i c h be s t
wou l d
in
the
n a t i ve s p e ak e r w i t h
wh i l e a
be
i n t a b l e 3 b e l ow .
f or e a ch o f t h e 9 s p e akers
Tab l e 3 .
Spe akers
Japanese
Po l i sh
Ame r i c a n
Swe d e 1
Swe de 2
Greek
Swah i l i
Kore a n
Lapp i sh
t h e n umb e r
that a
be graded
ma x i ma l l y s t rong n o n - n a t i ve a c c e n t
r e s u l t s o bt a i n e d a r e
s t rong f ore i gn a c ce n t .
t o wh i c h t h e y a gr e e d w i t h the s t a t e -
the s c a l e ,
a c c e n t wou l d
4
s p e ak e r w i t h a
graded
as
Th e n a t i ve
l e f tmo s t
j udgeme n t s g i ve n b y a l l
c o l umn ,
28
.
-
1 32 -
-
28 na i ve
The
l a nguag e s
the
i n f o rma n t s
i n t h e s e c o nd c o l umn .
Eva l ua t i on o f a c c ent edne s s
Av grades
4 . 25
3 57
1 .5
1 . 07
1
3.5
4 . 32
2 . 93
2 . 86
5 .
i n f orma n t s
The n e x t
f r om a
a,
b)
s t e p wa s t o e l i c i t
pane l
of
of
f or the expert
pane l
of
cy o f
j udge
i ns t a n c e s o f
e a c h s p e ak e r .
t o n a i ve
p o s e s o f the
curre nt
The
a s wa s u s e d f or t h e
of
dents
A pane l
e i gh t
i n pho ne t i c s a n d
the s e
25
20
15
10
5
0
r
r
r
r
L..
10
f i ve m i nu t e
f r e q u e nI nd e x
i nd e x e s
For
f or
c or r e -
t h e pur-
l i ngu i s t s
( t h e s ame ma t e r i a l
e x p e r i me n t s )
r e c orded
j ud g e d b y t h e
( t e a ch e r s a nd
l i s tened
by t h e
n a i ve
i n-
r e s e ar c h s t u-
i nd e p e nd e n t l y t o t h e
n o n - n a t i ve p r o n u n c i a t i o n s t h e y h e a rd o n
F i gure 5
Re l a t i o n s h i p be twe e n na i ve a nd e xpe rt a c c e n t e d n e s s
No . o f
d ev i a t i o n s
( expert
j udg e s )
have a
a set of
A c c e n t e d ne s s
t h e s t i mu l u s t e x t
l i ngu i s t i c s )
re c o rd i ngs a nd mark e d a l l
to
Th e i r
a s i mp l e r me thod wa s u s e d :
i de nt i f i c a t i on
of
a
a c c e nt ed n e s s .
n i n e ma l e s p e ak e r s wh o s e a c c e n t e d n e s s wa s
f orma n t s .
in
( 1981
a nd e x p e r t
wa s
e a ch o f
o c c ur r e d
f ound t h a t
e s t i ma t i o n s
ha l f o f
not
o bt a i n e d a n
e x p e r i me n t ,
f i rs t
n a i ve
By ave r a g i ng t h e r e l a t i ve
Bre n n a n a nd Bre n n a n
s p o n d e d we l l
be twe e n
or
e rr o r typ e s
type they
Bre n n a n a nd Br e n n a n
me a s ur eme n t
whe t h e r
the a c c e n t e d s p e e c h .
e a ch e rror
Me thod :
18
me a s ur e o f a c c e n t e d ne s s
f o r S p a n i sh-a c c e n t e d Eng l i sh .
a c c e n t edne s s
l i ngu i s t s
s amp l e o f
c omp a r i s o n
a c c e nt edness
me thod
poss i b l e
c omp a r a b l e
t r a i n e d pho n e t i c i a ns .
p e r f orme d a s i m i l ar
me a s ureme n t s
a
j udgeme n t s
*
*
*
*
*
*
1
A c c e nt edne s s grade s
-
1 33
-
( n a i ve
i n f orma n t s )
a
c o py o f
we r e
the
t e xt .
c ou n t e d .
Errors n o t e d by a t
j udgeme n t s
we r e t h e n
c omp a r e d w i t h
c omp a r i s o n
i s s h own
c a n be s e e n ,
re c e i ve d
n a i ve
10
be e n
in
c ou l d b e o b t a i n e d .
t h e n a i ve a c c e n t e d n e s s
f i gure
f or
one
de v i a t i o n s
f rom
the
there
is a
j Udgeme n t s .
i nt e r p r e t e d a s
fact
that
f or e i gn by t h e
t h e Ma l a r va l l ey d i a l e c t
the
two me t h o d s
wh i ch
i nd i c a t e s t h a t
n a i ve
n a t i ve
j udge s
n a i ve
j udg e s .
be d i s c u s s e d
a nd 2 . 9
f rom t h e
the expert
o f a c c e nt ednes s
l arg e r
but
a l mo s t
i n p a r t b e due
North Swe d i sh
as h i s
t h e o t h e r n o n - n a t i ve s p e ak e r s h a d
t h e i r t arge t .
i t m i ght
Th i s may
be
Apart
j udgeme n t
poss i b l e ,
a c c e nt e dne s s .
to
f r om t h i s e x c e p­
c o r r e s p o nd we l l ,
s i mp l y
re l y on
Th e s e r e s u l t s a r e c omp a ­
Fur t h e r e x p e r i me n t s u s i ng n a i ve e s t i ma t i o n s o f
wi l l
Th i s
L a p p i sh s p e ak e r
i n f o rma nt s ,
t i b l e w i t h t h o s e o bt a i n e d b y B r e n n a n a nd B r e n n a n
a
j udgeme n t s .
( t he
s p e ak e r h a d
of
as
j udgeme n t s o f
p e r f orme d w i t h
c ou n t s
The L a p p i sh s p e ak e r ' s a c c e n t h a s o bv i ous l y
wh i l e mo s t
t i on ,
ana l ys i s
Th e s e
c l e a r c o rre s p o nd a n c e b e twe e n
t h e L a p p i sh
t a rg e t d i a l e c t ,
resu l t ,
expert
a s a n a t i ve d i a l e c t by the e x p e r t
to t h e
l i ngu i s t s
5.
except
j udg e s )
a nd n a i ve
the
The K o r e a n s p e ak e r wa s e x c l ud e d f rom t h e
s i n c e o n l y two e x p e r t
As
l e a s t t wo o f
n umb e r o f a c c e n t s .
( 1981 ) .
a c c e n t e d n e s s we r e
Th e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d
i n s e c t i on 3 . 5 .
3 . 4 A t t i t ud e me a s ur eme n t
A s wa s d i s c us s e d
t i c a t t i t ud e s
in s e c t i on 2 . 5 ,
make u s e
ad j e c t i ve s r e p re s e nt i ng
I n f orma n t s a r e
ma ny
i nve s t i ga t i o n s
of
l i ngu i s ­
o f a 5 - 7 p o i n t s c a l e who s e e nd p o i n t s a r e
d i f ferent persona l
requ i red t o
-
" gr a d e "
1 34
-
and other qua l i t i e s .
t h e p e r s o na l i t i e s beh i nd the
vo i c e s t h ey h e a r a l o ng a numbe r o f t h e s e
gra d e s a r e
then
i nt e rpre ted
at t i tudes t o the
groups
In
i nd i c a t i o n o f t h e
var i e t i e s
our
a t t emp t
to
m i n or i t i e s a nd
Th e
wa s
that
to
that
test
the
a t t i t ud e s
of
hy p o t h e s e s
to
(a)
c omp a r a b l e
t h e wor l d
( or
t h e e th n i c
Me thod :
t h e i r a t t i t ud e s t o
i nt e n t i o n
n a t i ve
f ore i gn
f r om
s t r o ng e r a c c e n t s e l i c i t
tude s t o
of
the
a
e x p e r i me n t
s p e ak e r s h a v e d i f f e ­
s p e akers
d i f f erent e t hn i c
l e s s p o s i t i ve
f r om d i f f e r e n t
groups ) ,
a nd
(b)
n a t i ve s p e ak e r a t t i ­
f or e i g n s p e ak e r s .
A
var i a t i o n o n
the
"mat ched
s e c t i o n 2 . 5 wa s u s e d t o t e s t
f i ve o f
me n t s
to
a c c e n t s w i t h wh i ch t h e s e m i n or i t i e s s p e ak Swe d i sh ,
p i l o t e x p e r i me n t wa s p e r f o rmed .
part s
or
i n f o rma n t s '
i nve s t i g a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t we e n n a t i ve
a t t i t ud e s t o e t h n i c
f or e i g n
rent
s p oke n
The s e
t h e s p e ak e r s a r e a s s ume d o r k n own t o b e l o ng t o .
s p e ak e r s '
the
l a ng u a g e
as an
a d j e c t i ve s c a l e s .
t h e ma l e s p e ak e r s
pr e s e n t e d
i n f o rma nt s ,
31
part i c i pa t ed
e ar l i er ) ,
the
gu i s e " me t h o d d i s c u s s e d
f i rs t
hy p o t he s i s .
f r om t h e a c c e n t
Re c o rd i ngs o f
i de nt i f i c a t i on exper i ­
i n s e c t i o n 3 . 1 we r e u s e d f or t h i s e x p e r i me n t .
gymna s i um s t ud e n t s
i n an ac cent
we r e
g i ve n
f r om T i e r p
( mo s t
i de n t i f i c a t i o n e x p e r i me n t
i n f o rma t i o n
about
the
Th e
o f wh om h a d
a
f ew mo n t h s
s p e ak e r s '
a l t h o ugh
i n mo s t
cases
resu l ts
of
a c c e nt
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n e x p e r i me n t s we r e s t ud i e d
c l ose l y at
s a f e l y made
th i s
po i nt
about
p r e s e n t e d tw i c e
to
see
wh i ch
i n f orma t i o n wa s
mo t h e r
t o ngu e s ,
the
th i s
in
fa l se
e a ch s p e ak e r ' s o r i g i n .
t o the
i n f orma n t s ,
r e n t mo t h e r t o ngue .
-
1 35
-
e a ch
fa l se .
s t a t eme n t s
One o f
t i me a s
the
The
cou l d be
s p e ak e r s wa s
h a v i ng a d i f f e ­
Th e s p e ak e r s we r e :
1
2
3
4
5
6
.
.
.
.
.
.
The s p e ak e r s
e x p e r i me n t s
W i nd a nd
we r e
r e ad t h e
( t he
i n s t ru c t e d
be e n g i ve n
s ame t e x t
f i rs t h a l f o f
the S u n i l ) .
Th e
c o nt a i n e d pa i r s o f
po i nt s c a l e
as
f i l l i ng
in
s t a t eme n t s a b o u t
the
Th e r e we r e
t o rs
i n f o rma n t
3
1 2 s t a t eme n t p a i r s
such
as
wor t h i n e s s ,
tic
2
1
f a c t o rs ,
educa t i on ,
suc cess ,
and
to
fi l l
t h e s ame
In
in .
no case
e a c h p o i n t we r e
p r o b a b i l i ty )
more
l i Th e N o r t h
d i d the
The
The
they had
a n swer f orm
to
al l ,
Ta l a r e n ar
I Ag u t b i l d a d
( Th e s p e ak e r i s
n o t we l l - e du c a t e d )
c ove r i ng
persona l i ty f a c -
we a l t h ,
t h e vo i c e
k i nd n e s s ,
a s pure l y
f o r e i g n a c c e nt ,
t ru s t -
l i ngu i s -
c omp r eh e n s i b i l i ty ,
is ,
a n d how i rr i t a t -
is .
i n f o rma n t s
f i nd t h e
r e c og n i s e t h a t
the
f orms d i f f i c u l t
l as t
vo i c e wa s
g r a d e s a s s i gn e d t o e a ch s p e ak e r f or
stat i st i ca l ly
u s i ng
j udg e d t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
f r i e nd l y a nd s i g n i f i c a n t l y
-
f orms
and
i nd i c a t e t h e d e g r e e
i nt e l l i g e n c e a s we l l
ana l ys e d
Kore a n s p e ak e r wa s
of
e.g. :
in
h ow p l e a s a n t
f i rst .
c ou l d
f r i e nd l i ne s s ,
Ne i t h e r d i d they
as the
i de n t i f i c a t i o n
t h e s p e ak e r s e p a r a t e d by a 5 -
5
i ng t h e s p e ak e r ' s p r o n u n c i a t i o n
Re s u l t s :
the a n swe r
4
such a s degree o f
c l e ar n e s s o f s p e e ch ,
Kurd
Swe d e
G e rma n
Kurd
Swe d e
G e rma n
a c c e nt
s p e ak e r o n c e .
wh i c h h e agre e d w i t h t h e s t a t eme n t s
Ta l a r e n a r
hogu t b i l d a d
( Th e s p e ak e r i s
we l l -edu c a t e d )
i n the
a
a
a
a
a
a
t h e Swe d i s h v e r s i o n
h e a rd t h e
s u ch t h a t
wa s
wa s
wa s
wa s
wa s
wa s
he
he
he
he
he
he
i n f o rma n t s h e a rd e a ch s p e ak e r tw i c e ,
to s t art
a f t er they
to l d
to l d
tol d
to l d
to l d
to ld
we re
we r e
we r e
we r e
we r e
we r e
i n f orma n t s
i n f o rma n t s
i n f orma n t s
i n f orma n t s
i n f o rma n t s
i n f orma n t s
Kor e a n
Swe d i s h ( Sk A n e )
Arab i c
T i gr i nya
Swe d i sh ( N orth )
Kor e a n
1 36
-
the
t -t e s t .
( at the 5%
l ess
Th e
l eve l
success fu l
of
whe n
be l i ev e d t o
be
a
Kurd t h a n
whe n b e l i ev e d t o be
d i f f e r e n c e s be twe e n t h e t w o gu i s e s we r e n o t
a G e rma n .
Other
s i gn i f i c ant .
Th e e f f e c t
o f d i f f e r e n t a c c e n t s t r e ng t h wa s mu c h mor e marke d ,
t h ough
may o f
it
c o urs e be
the
o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s b e twe e n t h e
d i f f erent
the
s p e ak e r s
i n f o rma n t s
t o ngue s )
i ng way s
we re
to b e
we r e
Kurd s
i nd i c a t e s
s p e ak e r s ,
i nvo l ve d .
j ud g e d t o be
( -NS-
c a s e that
( w i th
i n f o rma n t s r e a c t e d t o
s i nce
Th e two
i n th i s
c a s e two
s p e ak e r s b e l i e ved by
Kor e a n a nd
T i gr i ny a a s n a t i ve
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e re n t
t h a t t h e r e wa s
al-
i n the
f o l l ow-
no s i gn i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
be twe e n t h e g r o u p s ) :
edu c a t i o n
f r i e nd l i ne s s
we a l t h
k i nd n e s s
t ru s two r t h i n e s s
suc cess
i nt e l l i ge n c e
a c c e nt edne s s
und e r s t a ndab l e
c l a r i ty
p l e a s a n t vo i c e
i rr i t a t i o n
Kore a n a s Kurd
S i g n i f i c a n t l y mo r e
S i gn i f i c a n t l y mor e
S i gn i f i c a n t l y mor e
S i g n i f i c a n t l y mor e
S i g n i f i c a n t l y mo r e
-NS S i g n i f i c a n t l y mor e
T i gr i nya as Kurd
S i gn i f i c a n t l y mor e
S i g n i f i c a n t l y mo r e
S i g n i f i c a n t l y mor e
S i g n i f i c a n t l y mor e
S i gn i f i c a n t l y mor e
A s i m i l a r c omp a r i s o n wa s made b e twe e n t h e two s p e ak e r s be l i e ve d
by t h e i n f orma n t s t o be G e rma n s ( n a t i ve s p e ak e r s o f K or e a n a nd
Ara b i c ) .
Kor e a n a s G e rma n
G e rman
edu c a t i o n
f r i e nd l i n e s s
we a l th
k i ndne s s
t r u s twort h i n e s s
success
i nt e l l i ge n c e
a c c e nt edne s s
unde r s t a nda b l e
c l ar i ty
p l e a s a n t vo i c e
i rr i t a t i on
Arab i c
S i gn i f i c a n t l y mor e
-NSS i gn i f i c a n t l y mo r e
-NS -NSS i gn i f i c a n t l y mo r e
-NSS i gn i f i c a n t l y mor e
S i g n i f i c a n t l y mor e
S i g n i f i c a n t l y mor e
-NS-NS -
-
13 7
-
as
Th e e f f e c t o f
a c c ent
s e ems
S t ro ng e r a c c e n t s
at
c l e ar .
l east
as
f ar a s
An
c e rn e d .
s t r e ng t h a s a p r e d i c t or
the
o bv i o u s
el icit
Kore a n
a nd
i mp r oveme n t
of
a c c e nt ednes s on
e l imi nat e
the
p r o b l ems
s p e ak e r s a s s t i mu l i .
asso c i ated
Wh i l e t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e v e ry
of
the
d i me n s i o ns
a l o ng
re l a t e d t o e a ch o t h e r .
th i s ,
a nd t h e
in
a t t i t ud e s ,
s p e ak e r s
a r e c o n-
t h e e xam i n a t i o n
a t t i t ud e s .
w i th
be d i s cu s s e d
i n t e r e s t i ng ,
wh i c h
f avo u r a b l e
t o th i s e x p e r i me n t wou l d be
n a t i ve s p e ak e r
Th i s w i l l
j udgeme n t s
T i gr i ny a
i mp l eme n t t h e ma t ch e d gu i s e t e ch n i q u e
e f fect
l ess
o f va l u e
the
h av i ng
two d i f f e r e n t
f ur t h e r
i n s e c t i on 4 .
it
is
c l e a r t h a t s ome
s i x s p e a k e r s we r e
j udged a r e
C orre l a t i o n t e s t s we r e p e r f o rme d
to
re l a t i o n s h i p
edu c a t i o n
f r i e nd l i ne s s
we a l t h
k i ndne s s
trus twort h i ne s s
success
i n t e l l i ge n c e
a c c e nt e d n e s s
unders t a nd a b l e
c l ar i ty
p l e a s a n t vo i c e
i rr i t a t i o n
As
can
Wh i l e
fr
0
is
we
that the
i nve r s e )
ki
tr
x
x
x
su
in
x
x
0
x
0
ac
un
cl
pI
x
0
0
0
x
x
x
x
0
x
x
0
x
0
ir
x
x
x
0
x
x
x
0
x
x
x
x
x
0
x
x
x
x
x
seen ,
x
0
x
x
x
0
x
x
x
x
ma ny o f
x
x
x
0
the va r i a b l e s a r e r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r .
c ome s a s n o s u r pr i s e t h a t d e g r e e
t i ve l y c o rre l a t e d t o d e gr e e o f
r e l a t e d t o c l a r i ty o f
wa s
( x me a n s
x
x
be
it
c h e ck
f o l l ow i ng r e s u l t s we re o b t a i n e d :
t h a t t h e q u a l i t i e s a r e p o s i t i ve l y c or r e l a t e d ,
ed
x
the
Th i s wou l d
S i gn i f i c a nt l y c orre l at ed var i ab l es a t 5% l eve l .
Tab l e 4
of
to
j udge d
t o be ,
of
i rr i t a t i o n
i s pos i -
f or e i g n a c c e nt
a nd n e ga t i ve l y c o r -
s p e e ch a nd h ow p l e a s a n t
t h e s p e ak e r ' s vo i c e
t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e twe e n k i nd n e s s o r we a l t h and
-
1 38
-
x
c l ar i ty o f
s p e e ch
is
It
l e s s o bv i o u s .
is
u n c l e a r how
t i o n s h i p be twe e n t h e s e va r i a b l e s
is
It
i n f orma n t s '
may
be
the
case
that
the
s p e ak e r s a r e mu c h
l ess
nua n c e d
prev i ou s s i m i l a r
work
in
ge s t ,
u s i ng
f ewer
b e twe e n
d i me n s i o n s .
f r i e nd l i ne s s ,
h a nd a n d
e du c a t i o n ,
than
the
a nd tha t t h e i r a t t i t ud e
field
to
k i nd n e s s
b y W i l l i ams
of
" st atus "
d a r i ty "
( 1 974 )
a nd
persona l
s i de
a t t i t ud e s t o
of
the
we a l t h ,
success ,
k i nd n e s s ,
wou l d s ug­
s ummed up
n o c or r e l a t i o n
on
on the other
i nd i c a t e
the
one
( except
f or
tha t ,
( 1 975 ) ,
a t t i t ud e s
as
f ou n d
t h e d i me ns i o n s
i nt e l l i gence )
t r u s tworth i n e s s )
n a t i ve s p e ak e r
t h e e th n i c
is
the
d e s i g n a nd
t ru s two r t h i n e s s
Th i s wo u l d
about
c a n be
there
C a r r a n z a a nd Rya n
( e du c a t i o n ,
( f r i e nd l i ne s s ,
e x p e r i me n t
s p e ak e r s
a nd s u c c e s s
e d u c a t i o n and t ru s t wo r t h i n e s s .
j udgeme n t s
( s e e s e c t i on 2 . 5 )
that
a nd
i nt erpre t e d .
the
the
Not i c e
we a l th
t o be
the re l a­
m i gh t
a nd
" so l i ­
c ove r t h e
( r e f l e c t i ng the i r
m i no r i t i e s wh o s p e ak w i t h t h e
a c c e nt
in
que s t i o n ) .
The s p e e c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a c c e n t e d n e s s ,
s a n t ne s s of
vo i c e ,
c l a r i ty
c orre l a t e d to e a ch o t h e r ,
by a s i ng l e d i me n s i o n
a c c e nt
i tse l f ) .
f r i e nd l i ne s s
a nd
k i ndne s s ;
except
rate
suc cess
a nd
eva l u a t i o n a l
i rr i t a t i o n we r e
p l ea­
a l ways
c a n a l s o be r e p re s e nt e d
( re f l e c t i ng n a t i ve s p e a k e r a t t i t ud e s t o t h e
A c c e nt e d n e s s wa s
c ompre h e n s i b i l i ty wa s
ne s s ,
s p e e c h a nd
s u ch t h a t t he s e
every t h i ng e x c e p t we a l th a nd
t o e v e ryth i ng
of
c ompr e h e n s i b i l i ty ,
c orre l a t e d t o
p l e a s a nt
success ;
f r i e nd l i ne s s ,
Th i s
1 39
-
c o rre l a t e d t o
wa s
k i nd n e s s
s h ows
that
at
s t a t us ,
c orre l a t e d
a nd s u c c e s s ;
e v e ryt h i ng e x c e p t
d i me n s i o n s a r e r e q u i re d :
-
was
i rr i t a t i o n
we a l t h ,
c orre l a t e d t o
i n t e l l i ge n c e .
vo i c e
e v e ry t h i ng e x c e p t
f r i e nd l i ­
l east
3 se pa­
s o l i d a r i ty a nd
s p e e ch
Fu r t h e r
chara c t e r i s t i c s .
e x p e r i me n t s
are
n e c e s s a ry a t
th i s po i nt .
3 . 5 Re l a t i o nsh i p b e twe e n a c c e n t e d n e s s a nd a c c e n t
At
the
s ame t i me a s t h ey t r i e d t o
t h e s p e ak e r s
reported
3.3,
the
to g r a d e the
the
n a i ve
on a sca l e
and 5
i n the
in s e c t i on 3 . 1 ,
a l s o a sk e d
way a s
t h ey h e ard
r e p re s e n t i ng
i n f orma n t s t r i e d
ma x i ma l l y
i d e n t i fy
me thod
( as
s p e ak e r ' s
s e c t i on 3 . 1 )
we r e v e ry
of
i nvo l ve d
one or
mor e
t o ng u e .
the
i n s e c t i on
f or e i g n a c c e n t
a c c e nt .
Th e s e
s p e ak e r s u s i ng
t h em p u t t i ng c r o s s e s
l a ng u ag e s
t h e y t h ought
I n f o rma n t s
a n a t t emp t
Tog e t h e r
t o a nswe r ,
w i th the
fact
that
than
one
l a nguage
th i s
me a n s t h a t
each
no
f ore i gn
we r e p e rm i t t e d t o c r o s s mor e
of
i n t h e s ame
u s i ng t h i s
f r e e r e s p o n s e me t h o d a l s o d e s c r i b e d
a l ways made
u n c e rt a i n .
f r om T i e rp we re
s p e ak e r s
r e p re s e n t i ng
t h e or i g i ns
mo t h e r
o p p o s e d t o the
the
s t ro n g
wh i ch
c orre s p o nd i ng t o
m i gh t be e a ch
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n e x p e r i me n t s
i n t h e e x p e r i me nt r e p o r t e d
t h e gu i d e d re s p o n s e me t h o d ,
i n s qu a r e s
mo t h e r t o ngu e s o f
2 9 gymn a s i um pu p i l s
to 5 wi th 1
a
to
a c c e nt
a c c ent ednes s o f
i n f o rma n t s
f rom 1
i d e n t i fy t h e
i de nt i f i c at i o n
s p e ak e r ,
l a ng u a g e
in
e v e n wh e n t h e y
the
i n f orma n t s
as
t h e n a t i ve
t h e r e we r e a
l a rge
numb e r of wro ng a nswe r s .
L o ok i ng a t
we rs n o t
f i gure
2,
pr i n t e d
in
ove r t h e ma t r i x .
i g nore a l l
the
l e ast 40% of
2) ,
we
are
is
c l e ar t h a t t h e wro n g a nswe r s
bo l d t y p e f a c e )
Wh a t d o e s
c o rre c t
the
the
a n swe r s
i n f orma n t s
l e ft
mo s t two-t h i rd s
it
of
t h e ma t r i x ,
-
ans­
a r e n o t r a ndom l y d i s t r i bu t e d
d i s t r i bu t i o n
d e p e nd
on?
I f we
a n d t h e o t h e r a n swe r s ma rk e d by a t
( i nd i c a t e d
w i t h a nswe rs
(al l
c l ust ered
by t h i c k
i n the
r e p r e s e n t i ng
1 40 -
l i ne s
i n f i gure
b o t t om a n d r i gh t ­
l a ng u ag e s
other than
those
s p ok e n
i n S c a nd i n av i a
a r e gue s s e d mor e
numb e r o f
and No r t h e r n Eur o p e .
o f t e n than
f a c t ors ,
o thers .
f o r e x amp l e t h a t
Th i s
may
s p e ak e r s o f
a r e be l i e v e d t o b e more nume r o u s t h a n o t h e r s ,
s p e ak Swe d i sh
w i t h s t ro n g e r
a c c e nt s
S ome
be
l a ngu a g e s
c aused
certa i n
or are
by a
l a ngua g e s
expe c t ed to
t h a n s p e ak e r s
of
other
l a n­
guag e s .
I n order t o t e s t
the
l at t er
i de a ,
the
l a nguag e s gu e s s e d a nd t h e a c c e n t e d ne s s
ed .
C o n s i d e r f o r e x amp l e
2 .
F i rs t
s ha l l
c ome
i g nore .
the
Next
t h e r ow
29
a c c o rd i ng
s p e ak e r 2 2 ,
( gr a d e
Th e
( F i n l a nd-Swe d i sh
s p e ak e r )
s p e ak e r
1 . 6) ,
s p e ak e r 3 0
( gr a d e
2 . 8)
7 x 2.4
Th i s
+
numb e r
gue s s e s
+
1 x 2 . 0
is
f or F i nn i sh ) ,
f or s p e ak e r 1 1 who
29
wro ng
are
f or
a l so
i gn o r e d .
s p e ak e r
16
1 . 6
+
2 x 2 . 8
d i v i ded
t o g i ve
by
the
( gr a d e
( the
tota l
ave r a g e
t h e o t h e r p o s s i b l e mo t h e r t o ngu e s .
gue s s e d t o
h a v e e a ch
ma rk e d w i t h
the
f i rs t
of
l a ng u a g e a s
3
S i m i l ar
al l
l et t ers
1 gue s s
for
s p e ak e r 2 4
2 . 8)
a nd 2
11
f or
f or
a nd 2 2 :
numb e r o f wr o ng
a c c e nt edne s s
f o rmed f or a l l
a c c e nt edne s s
wh i c h we
2 x 2 . 8 = 33 . 2
f o r F i nn i sh ,
ave rage
1 ,
f i gure
2 g ue s s e s
f or s p e akers
wr o ng gu e s s e s
the
2 .4 .
14
+
f or
Th e
in
had a grade
pu p i l s a nd
gue s s e s
are a d d e d t o t h o s e
2 x
then
2
s p e ak e r wa s e x am i n ­
f or s peaker
the s ame g r o u p o f
2 . 0) .
( gr a d e
the
c orre c t gue s s e s
to
14
of
r e p r e s e n t i ng F i n n i sh
c ome 7 gu e s s e s
2 . 4 ac cent
r e l a t i o n sh i p b e t we e n t h e
of
the
c a l c u l a t i o n s we r e p e r­
F i gu r e
6
s h ows
t h e var i o u s s p e ak e r s wh o we r e
mo t h e r t o n g u e .
of
e a ch
The x-ax i s
l a ng u a g e s
is
( t o be read
ve r t i c a l l y ) .
Swe d i s h a n d Norwe g i a n we r e
n a t ur a l l y g u e s s e d
re i gn
not i c e ab l e .
ac cent
wa s
bare l y
-
1 4 1
-
A l so ,
o n l y whe n
the
f o­
F i n n i s h a nd L a p p i sh
we r e o n l y gue s s e d f or r e l a t i ve l y s l i gh t
i n t e r e s t i ng s i n c e
a s t h e Nord i c
g r a ph i c a l
wh i c h
t o be
v e ry
it
certa i n ly
wh i ch
are
accents ,
is
I t wou l d s e em t h a t
a c c e nt s
s l i gh t
s t ronger
a nd
s t rong .
e f f e c t here :
are
Swe d e n ;
t h e y d o n o t be l o ng t o t h e s ame
l a ng u a g e s ,
F i n n i sh a c c e n t
f or e i g n a c c e n t s ,
are
a s s umed
on
the
to b e
other
f rom f a r t h e r a f i e l d .
as w i t n e s s e d by the
b a r s o n t h e r i gh t
f i gu r e
ge ogr a ph i c a l
in
zone s .
f r om Swe d e n t h ey are
6 .
If
more or
l e ss on
s p ok e n .
such that :
of
zone
2
i n c l ud e s E ng l i s h a nd G e rma n
zone
3
i n c l ud e s S p a n i sh .
f r om c ou n t r i e s n e ar
a s s umed to be
l e ng t h o f
the
a s s i gn e d t o
h ow f a r away
Swe d i s h a nd Norwe g i a n
Fre n c h a nd G r e ek
zone 4
i n c l ud e s P o l i s h .
zone
5
i n c l ud e s Kurd i sh .
Pers i an ,
zone
6
i n c l ud e s
T i gr i ny a ,
zone
7
i n c l ud e s J a p a ne s e .
S e rb o - C ro a t ,
Swah i l i .
t o the
ave r age
Rus s i a n a nd C z e c h
Turk i sh a n d A r a b i c
K i nya rwa n d a a n d Yoruba
Kor e a n a nd B e nga l i .
that
s i gn i f i c a n t l y p o s i t i ve l y
the zone
c or r e l a t e d
a c c e ntedness o f
numb e r o f t h e
l a ng­
1%
l ev e l
( l es s than
the
wro n g gu e s s e s
l a nguage w i t h r = O . 8 6 1 9 .
s e ems t o be
f o re i g n a c c e n t .
g e o g r a ph i c a l
a c c e nt
i s a geo­
i de n t i f i a b l e but
of
i n c l ud e s F i n n i s h a nd L a p p i sh
Th e p o s i t i o n
a
there
t h e ba s i s
1
f or t h a t
f or a
are
zone
p r o b a b a l i ty )
poss i b l e
l a ng u a g e s
i n c l ud e s
is
f am i l y
i n c r e a s i ng
0
is
l a ng u a g e
h a nd a r e
zone
a s i mp l e c o rre l a t i o n t e s t s h ows
uage
the
not
wh i ch
he wi l l
d i stance
that
if
an
i n f orma n t
f a i l s t o re cogn i se
p l a c e t h e s p e ak e r ' s mo t h e r t o ng u e
at a
f r om Swe d e n c o r r e s p o nd i ng t o h ow s t r o ng t h e
is .
-
1 42 -
A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e way t o a c c ou n t
a n swe r s
in
f i gu r e
2
i s to
e x c l ud i ng
i n f o rma n t s .
s h own
in
all
f i gure
7.
As
a n d Kurd i sh dom i n a t e .
i mm i g r a n t
( wh i ch
groups
i s not
s evera l
in
the
we l l .
and
l a rge
t o r e c og n i z e
thes e
t h e r e f or e b e i ng a b l e
p o s s i b l e mo t h e r t o ngu e s
f or
is
e a ch
40% o f t h e
l a nguage
is
b e l i eve t he s e
i n t h e Uppsa l a are a
t h e r e f or e
F i nn i sh .
Br i t i sh a nd Ame r i c a n E ng l i sh .
Th i s
a s p e ak e r .
l east
i n f o rma nt s
a nd
e x p e r i me n t .
n o t o f t e n wrong l y g u e s s e d .
be i ng a b l e
that
case ) .
f or
l a n­
t h e b a r s r e p r e s e n t i ng Turk i sh
part i cu l ar l y
i n fact the
t i me s
N o rweg i a n .
be
be
at
o f wro ng
t i me s e a ch
t o ng u e o f
by
gu e s s e s
c a n be s e e n .
to
numbe r o f
ma rke d
wro n g
I t may
d i s t r i bu t i o n
the mo t h e r
pos i t i ons
t h e numb e r o f
the
l o ok a t t h e
guage wa s wr ong l y g u e s s e d to b e
Aga i n
f or
l i ke l y
t o o c c ur
Lapp i sh .
Swe d i s h .
Fre n c h a n d J a p a n e s e we r e
probab l y due t o the
accents
i n f o rma n t s
( ex c e p t J a p a ne s e )
fairly
t o e x c l ud e t h em f r om t h e r a n g e o f
a s p e ak e r
who s e a c c e nt
t h e y do n o t
r e c og n i z e .
4.
P l a nned expe r i me n t s and future work
4 . 1 On t h e n a t ure o f
Throughout
f or e i gn a c c e n t s
the d i s c us s i o n o f work d o n e by the
i t h a s b e e n a s s umed t h a t
u n c o n t rove rs i a l .
the
t e rm
Let us cons i der
Spe e ch pronoun c e d w i t h a
" f o r e i gn
j u s t wh a t
n a t i ve s p e ak e r n o rm .
s p e e ch t o d ev i a t e
f r om
*
a c c e nt "
th i s
ask
n o rm
is
w i thout
then :
Wh e n d o e s dev i a n t s p e e c h b e c ome
-
It
1 45
-
f or e i g n ?
is
c l e a r a nd
i s me a n t by t h i s t e rm .
f or e i gn a c c e nt d ev i a t e s
s ome u n s pe c i f i e d
f i rs t q u e s t i o n we mu s t
a u t h o r s a nd o t h e r s .
i n s ome way f r om
i s howe v e r p o s s i b l e
s o u nd i ng
f or e i g n .
f or
The
Th i s may
be
a q u e s t i o n o f how d e v i a n t
or two d ev i a n t
f e a t ur e
is
f e a t ur e s
added the
the s p e e ch
s ou n d o n l y s l i gh t l y odd ,
e ffect
i s re l a t e d t o t h i s que s t i on .
s t rong
a c c e n t may
f e a t ur e s ,
f o rm .
Wh a t mak e s a
Th e s e
a c c e nt
is
l i ke l y
used
as
the
i n a p a r t i c u l ar
t h e Swe d i sh
gera ted
l e ng t h
grave
numb e r o f d ev i a n t
p re s e n t
a c c e nt ,
in
c o -o c c ur r e n c e
in
a mor e
( cf
s e c t i on 2 . 3 ) .
S t ere otype
unas p i r a t e d
I t may b e t h e
i n a r a ndom
of
p a r t i c u l ar
o f a part i cu l ar
i nt i a l
case
that
f ore i gn
Cons i der
f e a t ur e s
c o n s o n a n t s a nd vowe l s ,
i n o t h e rw i s e
wh i l e two o r t h r e e
d o n o t o c cur
" s i g n a t ur e "
i n Swe d i s h .
c ontra s t s
f e a t ur e s o c c u r r i ng
the
l a ng u a g e
a n d a l ve o l a r r o l l e d I r / .
odd ,
f e a t ur e s
f e a ture s
that
e x amp l e a F i n n i s h a c c e n t
of
of
l a rge
i mp re s s i o n o f a
We ask
pronunc i a t i on
I t s e ems
f e a t ure s
to a
Th e
f or e i gn n e s s .
f or e i g n a c c e n t s t ro ng e r ?
dev i a n t
ma nne r .
due
o r t o a sma l l e r numb e r
e x agge r a t e d
*
be
P e rh a p s o n e
b u t whe n a t h i rd
i s o n e o f u nm i s t ak e a b l e
A c c e nt s t r e ng t h
f or e i g n
is .
are
st ops ,
f or
l a ck
exag­
ve l a r i s e d I I I
a ny o n e o f t h e s e
n a t i ve Swe d i s h wou l d s ound me r e l y
t og e th e r
i mme d i a t e l y g i ve
an
i mp re s s i o n
o f a F i nn i sh a c c e nt .
Th e q ue s t i o n h e r e
*
In
Wh a t make s a
sect i on
is:
part i cu l ar
2 . 3,
two
f or e i g n a c c e n t ?
q ue s t i o n s wh i ch b e l o ng
we r e r a i s e d :
-
1 46
-
i n t h i s d i s c us s i on
*
C a n n a t i ve s p e ak e r s have p o s i t i ve a t t i t u d e s t o o n e
p e r c e i ve
in
a p a r t i c u l ar
f or e i gn a c c e nt wh i l e
t i ve a t t i t ud e t o a n o t h e r ?
*
f e a t ur e
n e g a t i ve
it
whe n
a t t i t ude s t o t h e s ame
a t t i t ud e s
o c curs
f e a t ur e
i n one
1 980 )
the
t h a n o n e n o n- n a t i ve
p l a us i b l e
that
nu n c i a t i o n o f
l ar l y ,
if
e x amp l e ,
in
a n a t i ve
is
wh i l e
a c c e nt
f i nd s
he
is
Th i s
f e atures
s p e e c h redu c t i o n s ,
s u ch
a nd
as
i n more
it
s e e ms
f i nd t h e r e t ro f l e x p r o ­
n a t i ve
s p e ak e r
f i nd s vowe l
u n a t t r a c t i ve / ne g a t i ve .
" e s ko " )
l eads u s t o the
f e a t ur e s o f
f l ue n cy
a c c e nt - s pe c i f i c
/e/
to
un l i ke l y t o
p o or
( a s s h own
I n t u i t i ve l y ,
a prothe t i c
l i ke
h ow i rr i t a t i ng a r e d i f f e r e n t
ge nera l
be
s i nce
o f E ng l i s h - a c c e n t e d Swe d i s h
s ame
to
pronounc e d
Arab i c - a c c e nt e d Swe d i sh .
p o s i t i ve
l i k e l y t o s h ow u p
Swe d i sh .
the
s p e ak e r
a part i cu l ar
a c c e n t but
to test
s p e a k e r m i gh t
S p a n i s h -a c c e n t e d Swe d i sh ,
*
is
s ome va r i e t i e s
i n t h e s ame
" sko "
of
n a t i ve
a t t r a c t i ve / p o s i t i ve
r e du c t i o n
f e a t ur e
accent
a
/r/
s ame
to
i n a no t h e r a c c e n t ?
Th e s e q ue s t i o n s s h o u l d n o t b e d i f f i c u l t
by B a n n e rt
t h ey h a v e a n e g a ­
a nd
C a n n a t i ve s p e ak e r s h ave
n o n- n a t i ve
f e a t ur e they
f i nd
Simi­
( wh e r e by ,
be
it
f or
p o s i t i ve
in
n e ga t i ve
in
f o l l ow i ng q u e s t i o n :
f ore i gn
accents ,
a nd n o n - n a t i ve
f e a t ur e s
such
both
casua l
a s tho s e
me n t i o n e d a b ove ?
An e x p e r i me n t
a i me d a t a nswe r i ng t h e s e q u e s t i o n s
pre p a r a t i o n .
After care fu l
pra c t i c e ,
o f Swe d i sh )
re c orded a
n a t i ve s p e ak e r
t e xt w i th
f o re i g n a c c e n t
f e a t ure s b o t h
-
14 7
-
a
is
c u rr e n t l y
in
t r a i n e d pho n e t i c i a n
(a
numb e r o f
in
i so l at i on
r e a d i ngs o f a
a nd
i n var-
i ou s
c omb i na t i o n s .
o c cur
The
i n ma ny d i f f e r e n t
be i ng p r o n o u n c e d
requ i red
+
bu i l d
up
Th e
po i nt o f
the
wh i ch
c omb i na t i o n s
of
" f o r e i g nn e s s " ;
the
th i s
(b)
e x p e r i me nt
wh i c h m i n i ma l
case ) ;
(c)
i n f orma n t s .
f e a t ur e
wh i c h
(d)
Th e
f e a t ur e s
wh i ch
a n d S chu l ma n
(a)
i mp r e s s i o n o f
c omb i na t i o n s
of
f e a t ur e s g i ve
s o und
( Br i t i sh o r F i n n i sh
mo s t
up
in
dev i ant
t o n a t i ve
i rr i t a t i ng
f o r n a t i ve
an
a c c ent
f e a t ure by
b e i ng b a s e d o n t h e work o f W i ngs t e d t
a c c e nt edne s s
i t wa s
s t r o ng e r
ma t ch e d gu i s e me t h o d .
A g e nu i n e
f e a ture
s ug g e s t e d t h a t
f ore i gn
Th i s
f or e i g n
u s i ng
c ou l d b e
a c c e nt
s p e e ch
be
synthe s i s
t e c hn i q u e s ,
d e gr e e s
c o u l d b e p r e s e n t e d t o n a t i ve s p e ak e r s
s e c t i on 4 . 1 ,
and
an a c cent
i n c l ud e d i f f e r e n t
i n s t r o ng e r a nd we a k e r va r i e t i e s
of
i nvo l ve d .
a c c e nt edne s s .
-
Aga i n ,
148
-
i n s evera l
" c orre c t e d " ,
d i f f erent
to
b e s t ud i e d u s i ng t h e
c ou l d
arranged
can
A phon e t i c i a n c a n s i mu l a t e
s p e ak e r r e a c t i o n s
n a t i ve
accents
s ame v o i c e w i th s ev e r a l
degre e s
t o e s t a b l i sh
( 1 9 84 ) .
I n s e c t i on 3 . 4
2 .
is
and a
the
t e c h n i q u e o f bu i l d i ng
4 . 2 Ma n i pu l a t i o n o f
we a k e r a nd
part l y the
f e a t u r e s g i ve
f e a t ur e s a r e mo s t
i s not e nt i re l y new ,
a nd
a Br i t i sh E ng l i sh a c c e nt
i mp r e s s i o n o f a c e r t a i n f or e i g n a c c e n t
i n f o rma n t s a nd
1 .
c o n s o n a n t s b e i ng p r o ­
consonant ,
dent a l
F i nn i sh a c c e nt .
m i n i ma l
s u ch a s t h e grave a c c e n t
t h e r e t ro f l e x
o f ArA
to
i nvo l ve d we r e p a r t l y t h o s e wh i ch
f or e i g n a c c e n t s ,
a s a c ut e ,
noun c e d a s a s e q u e n c e
f e a t ur e s
f eatures
(c . f .
of
ways :
f e a t ur e by
such that
a c c e nt e d n e s s
Bannert
1 984 ) .
i n t h e way d e s c r i be d
c omb i n a t i o ns
of
t o o bt a i n s e ve r a l
t h e s ame
the
in
f e atures
d i f f e re n t
s p e ak e r wou l d b e
3.
A
new
i mm i gr a n t ,
g o o d i m i t a t i t i ve
i n s eve r a l
A new
4.
a b ove
of
c apab i l i t i e s ,
wi th
a b a c kg r o u nd
c a n be r e c orded s evera l
Th e s p e ak e r ' s
c ome we a k e r
i n a n a t ur a l
Th e t h i rd me t h o d
at
a l l ows
c omp l e t e
the
be i ng r a t h e r
p i l ot
of
c o n s um i ng
imi t a t i on o f
pho n e t i c i a n ' s
i nvo l ve d ,
in th i s
d i f f erent
c omp l e t e ,
and
s t age .
p e r i od o f mo n t h s
mo s t
e f f e c t i ve a t
Wh i l e s p e e c h s y n t he s i s
i t has
case .
t h e drawba ck o f
Th e s e c o n d me t hod ,
of
the
l e a d i ng t o c e r t a i n
that
t h a t d e s c r i be d
can the n be expe c t e d t o be-
a n a c c e nt h a s
wh i l e o t h e r s a r e ove r l o o k e d .
to
ove r a
s i mp l e s t
s t e r e o t y p e mod e l
i nh e r e n t d i s a dva n t a g e
sible
is
c o n s i de r i ng s u c h d e t a i l e d ma n i pu l a -
a ph o n e t i c i a n ' s
r e c ord i ngs a r e
s e ve r a l
such as
t h e s p e e ch ,
n e c e s s a ry
rated ,
f or e i g n a c c e n t
way .
e x p e r i me nt
c ontro l
t i me
t i me s
a c cent
i s probab l y the
t i o n a s wou l d be
e a s i l y b e c ome
whe r e t h e
i n t e n s i ve t r a i n i ng s u c h t h a t
i mm i g r a n t ,
l east
c a n be t r a i n e d t o r e ad a t e xt
a c c e nt e dne s s a r e obt a i n e d .
or years .
the
l i n gu i s t i c a l l y t r a i n e d a nd w i t h
d i f f er e n t vers i ons
c orre c t e d by
d e gr e e s
i de a l l y
a
The
l o ng p e r i od
u s i ng
t h e d i s adva n t a g e
a c c e nt
in
that
q u e s t i o n may
f e a t ur e s b e i ng e x agge f ou r t h
me t h o d
has
the
i s r e q u i r e d b e f or e t h e
a nd t h e s p e ak e r ' s a c c e n t e d n e s s
is
i mp o s -
c o n t ro l .
Re f e r e n c e s :
A r thur , B . , D . F a r r a r a nd B . Br a d f ord ( 1 9 7 4 ) Eva l u a t i ve r e a c t i o n s
o f c o l l e ge s t ud e n t s t o d i a l e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e Eng l i sh o f Me x­
i c a n-Ame r i c a n s . L a ngu a g e a nd S p e e ch 1 7 , 2 5 5 - 2 7 0 .
B a n n e r t , R . ( 1 9 8 0 ) SvA r i gh e t e r med s v e n s k t ut t a l :
p r i or i t e r i ng . P r a k t i sk L i ngv i s t i k 5 .
-
14 9
-
i nve n t e r i ng o ch
B a n n e r t , R . ( 1 9 8 4 ) P r o s o dy a nd i nt e l l i g i b i l i ty
o f Swe d i sh s p ok e n
w i t h a f or e i gn a c c e n t . I n C . -C . E l e r t , I . J oh a n s s o n a nd E . S t r a n­
g e r t ( e d s . ) : Nord i c P r o s ody
I I I . Papers
f rom a
Symp o s i um . A c t a
Un i v . Ume n s i s . Ume � S t ud i e s i n t h e Huma n i t i e s 5 9 , p p . 7 - 1 8 .
Bourh i s , R . , H . G i l e s a nd H . Ta j f e l
n a n t o f We l sh i de nt i ty . Euro p e a n J .
( 1 9 7 3 ) La ngu a g e a s a d e t e rm i ­
o f S o c . Psych . 3 , 447-6 0 .
Br e n n a n , E . a n d J .
Bre n n a n ( 1 9 8 1 a )
A c c e nt s c a l i ng
a nd l a n g u a g e
at t i tudes :
Re a c t i o ns
to
Mex i c a n- Ame r i c a n E ng l i sh s p e e ch . L a ng .
Speech 24 , 2 07-2 2 1 .
Br e n n a n , E . a nd J . Br e n n a n
( 1981b)
Me a s ur e me n t s
of
a c c e n t a nd
a t t i t u d e t oward
Me x i c a n Ame r i c a n s p e e ch . J . P s y c h o l i ngu i s t . Re s .
1 0 , 487- 5 0 1 .
Bre n n a n , E . , E . Rya n a nd D . Daws o n ( 1 9 7 5 ) S c a l i ng o f a p p a r e n t a c ­
c e n t e d n e s s by ma g n i t u d e e s t i ma t i o n a nd s e n s o ry mod a l i ty ma t ch i ng .
J . P s y c ho l i ng u i s t . Re s . 4 , 2 7 - 3 6 .
Re n c h e r
( 1 973 )
P e r c e p t i o ns o f
Brown , B . L . , W . J .
S t r o ng
&
C.
o f ma n i pu l a t i o n s o f a c ou s t i c a l
p e r s o n a l i ty f r om
s p e e ch : e f f e c t s
p a r ame t e r s . J . A . S . A . 5 4 , 2 9 - 3 5 .
Br own , B . L . , W . J . S t r o ng &
C . Re n c h e r
( 1 9 7 4 ) F i f ty - f our vo i c e s
f r om t wo :
t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s i mu l t a n e ou s ma n i p u l a t i o n s o f r a t e ,
me a n f un d ame n t a l f r e qu e n cy a nd v a r i e n c e o f
f un dame nt a l f r e q u e n cy
o n r a t i ng s o f p e r s o n a l i ty f rom s p e e ch .
C a rr a nz a ,
M i chae l
a nd
E l l en
B o u c h a rd
Rya n
( 1 9 7 5 ) Eva l u a t i ve
re a c t i o n s o f b i l i ng u a l
A ng l o
a nd
Me x i c a n
Ame r i c a n Ado l e s c e n t s
t oward s p e ak e r s
o f E ng l i sh a n d S p a n i sh . I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o ur n a l o f
t h e S o c i o l ogy o f L a n g u a g e 6 , 8 3- 1 0 4 .
C u n n i ngh am-Ande r s s o n , U . ( 1 9 8 6 ) A p p ro a ch i ng t h e Swe d i sh s p e ak e r ' s
mode l o f Swe d i sh s p oke n by Eng l i s h s p e a k e r s - a p i l o t s t udy . RUUL
1 4 , 1 - 1 2 . I ns t f o r L i ngv i s t i k , U p p s a l a .
D i m i t r i j ev i c , N . R .
a nd D .
D j or d j ev i c ( 1 9 7 1 )
Th e r e l i a b i l i ty o f
t h e s ub j e c t i v e a s s e s sme n t o f t h e p u p i l s ' p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f E ng l i sh
a s a f o re i g n l a ng u a g e . I n t . Rev . A p p l . L i ng . 9 , 2 4 5 - 6 5 .
Edwa rd s ,
accents .
J.R.
( 1 9 77 )
S t ud e n t s '
react i ons
Langu a g e a n d S p e e ch 2 0 ( 3 ) , 2 8 0 - 2 8 6 .
to
I r i sh
r eg i ona l
Ei senste i n , M .
( 1 9 8 3 ) N a t i ve
re a c t i ons t o
n o n - n a t i ve s p e e c h :
r e v i ew o f emp i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . S t ud i e s
in
Sec .
Lang .
A c qu i s .
( 2 ) , 1 60-176 .
a
5
( 1 9 8 7 ) The
I R I S s p e e ch
dat a bas e a s t a t us r e ­
Eng s t r a nd , O .
p o r t . I n Engs t r a nd ,
O.
( ed . ) ,
1 987 :
Papers
f r om
t h e Swe d i sh
Phone t i c s
Conference
he l d
in
Up p s a l a ,
Oct ober
1 7- 1 8 , 1 9 8 6 ,
1 2 1 - 1 2 6 . Re p o r t s f r om Up p s a l a
Un i ve r s i ty ,
Dept .
o f L i n gu i s t i c s
( RUUL ) 1 7 .
Engs t r a nd , O .
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b a s e f or c r o s s - l i ngu i s t i c
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Swe d i sh
p h o n o l ogy .
J o h a ns s o n , S .
( 1 9 7 8 ) S t ud i e s
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( e d s ) Pr o c e e d i ngs 5 t h
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o ngr e s s
of the
I n t e r na t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n A p p l i e d
L i ngu i s t i c s , 3 2 2 - 3 3 1 . ( L ava l U . P . Que b e c ) .
Mu l a c , A . , T . D . Ha n l ey a nd D . Y .
P r i gg e ( 1 9 74 )
E f f e c t s o f phono­
l og i c a l s p e e c h
f ore i gn e s s upon
t h r e e d i me n s i o n s
o f a t t i t ud e o f
s e l e c t e d Ame r i c a n l i s t e n e r s . Qu a r t e r l y J o u rn a l o f s p e e ch 6 0 , 4 1 1 420 .
Osgood , C . ,
o f me a n i ng .
G . J . S u c i a nd P . H .
Urb a n a I l l .
Ta n n e n b a um
( 1 957 )
Th e me a s ur eme n t
P a l me r , L . A . ( 1 9 7 3 ) A p r e l i m i n a ry r e p o r t o n a
s t udy o f
t h e l i n­
gu i s t i c c o rre l a t e s o f r a t e r ' s s u b j e c t i ve j udgeme n t s o f n o n - n a t i ve
Eng l i sh s p e e c h . i n : R . W .
Shuy
a nd
R.W.
Fa s o l d
( e d s ) L a ng u a g e
a t t i t ud e s : c urre n t
t r e nd s a nd p ro s p e c t s , Wa s h i ngt o n D . C . G e o rg e ­
t own Un i ve r s i ty P r e s s 4 1 - 5 9 .
W.P .
Rob i ns o n ,
( 1972 )
Ha rmo nd swo r t h , P e ngu i n .
Language
-
1 51
-
a nd
soc i a l
b e h av i our .
Roma i ne , S .
( 1 980 )
t o s p e e c h : p r o b l ems
i n S c o t l a nd .
S ty l i s t i c
var i a t i o n a n d eva l ua t i ve r e a c t i o n s
i n t h e i nve s t i ga t i o n
o f l i ngu i s t i c a t t i t ud e s
Ry a n ,
E. ,
M.
Carranza
and
R.
Mo f f i e ( 1 9 7 7 ) R e a c t i o n s t oward
vary i ng d e gr e e o f a c c e n t e dne s s
i n the
s p e e c h o f S p a n i sh-Eng l i sh
b i l i ngu a l s . L a ng . S p e e c h 2 0 , 2 6 7 - 2 7 3 .
Ry a n ,
E.B.
( 1 983 )
Soc i a l
p s y c h o l og i c a l
me c h a n i sms u n d e r l y i ng
n a t i ve
s p e ak e r
eva l ua t i o n s
of
n o n - na t i ve
s p e e ch .
S t ud i e s i n
S e c o nd La ngu a g e A c q u i s i t i o n 5 ( 2 ) 1 4 8 - 1 5 9 .
Ry a n , E . B .
a nd M . A .
Carranza ( 1 977 )
I ng r o u p a nd o u t g r o u p r e a c ­
t i o n s t o Me x i c a n-Ame r i c a n l a ng u a g e
var i e t i e s . i n :
H . G i l e s ( ed )
La ngu a g e , e t h n i c i ty a nd i n t e rg r o u p r e a c t i o n s . L o n d o n . 5 9 - 8 2 .
Rya n , E . B .
a nd R . J . S e ba s t i a n ( 1 9 8 0 ) Th e e f f e c t s o f s p e e ch s ty l e
a n d s o c i a l c l a s s o n s o c i a l j udgeme n t s o f s p e ak e r s .
Br i t i sh J our­
na l o f S o c i a l a n d C l i n i c a l P sy c h o l o gy 1 9 , 2 2 9 - 2 3 3 .
( 1 9 8 1 ) Th e
r e c ogn i t i o n o f f or e i g n a c c e nt s i n Eng l i sh
S c ove l , T .
a nd i t s i mp l i c a t i o n s f o r
p s y c h o l i ng u i s t i c
theor i es
o f l a ng u a g e
a c qu i s i t i on . i n :
J . -G . S avard
and L .
L a f o r g e ( e d s ) P r o c e e d i ngs
5th
I nternat i ona l
C o ngre s s
of
the
I nt e rnat i on a l
As s o c i a t i on
A p p l i e d L i ngu i s t i c s , 3 8 -4 7 . ( L ava l U . P . Que b e c ) .
S e ba s t i a n , R . J . ,
E . B . Ry a n a nd L . C o r s o ( 1 9 7 8 ) S o c i a l
o f s p e ak e r s
w i t h d i f f e r i ng
d e gr e e s o f
a c c e nt e d n e s s .
sented at
the me e t i ng
o f t h e N i n t h Wor l d C o ngr e s s o f
Up p s a l a .
T a rd i f , C . a nd d ' A ng l e j a n ,
A.
l a ng u e s e c o nd e
e t l eurs e f f e t s
d i a n Mod e r n L a ngu a g e R e v i ew 3 7 ,
Tu c k e r , G .
l i s teners '
F o r c e s 47 ,
j udgeme n t s
P a p e r pre­
S o c i o l ogy ,
( 1981 )
Les
erreurs
en fran9a i s
s u r l a c ommu n i c a t i o n o ra l e . C a n a ­
70 6-7 2 3 .
R i c h a rd a n d Wa l l a c e E . Lamb e r t ( 1 9 6 9 )
Wh i t e a nd Negro
r e a c t i o n s to v a r i o u s Ame r i c a n-Eng l i s h d i a l e c t s . S o c i a l
46 3-8 .
W i l l i ams , F r e de r i c k ( 1 9 7 4 ) The
tudes .
I nt ernat i ona l
J ourna l
2 1-32 .
W i n g s t e d t , M . a nd R .
S chu l ma n
accents .
In :
I .W.U.
Dre s s l e r
br i dge Un i ve r s i ty P re s s .
i de n t i f i c a t i o n o f l i ngu i s t i c a t t i ­
of
the
S o c i o l o gy o f L a n g u a g e 3 ,
( 1 9 84 )
C ompreh e n s i o n
o f f or e i gn
( e d ) P h o n o l og i c a . C ambr i dg e : C am­
A c know l e dgme nt
Th i s work wa s s u p p o r t e d i n part
by Th e
Swe d i sh C o u n c i l
f or Re ­
s e a r c h i n t h e Huma n i t i e s a nd S o c i a l S c i e n c e s ( gr a n t s F 5 7 1 / 8 7 a nd
F 6 5 5 / 8 8 t o O . Engs t r a nd ) .
-
1 52 -
REPRESENTING P I TCH ACCENT IN SWED I SH
Le s l i e M.
B a i l e y*
Abs t r act
Words i n S t ockh o l m Swe d i sh h a v e one o f two p o s s i b l e
a c c e nts . I n t h i s p a p e r , i t i s d emo n s trate d t h a t a c c e n t
c h o i ce i s p r e d i c t a b l e f r om t h e word ' s me t r i c a l s t ru c­
t ure. Th at i s, words w i th A c c e n t 2 h a v e pr i ma ry s t r e s s
a t t h e l e f t word e dg e or o n a sy l l a b l e dom i n a t e d by t h e
l e f tmo s t f o o t o f t h e word (" l e f t s t r e s s e d g e" ) . Word s
w i t h A c c e n t 1 h a v e p r i ma ry s t r e s s a t t h e r i gh t word e d g e
o r o n a sy l l a b l e d omi n a t e d by t h e r i ghtmost f o o t o f t h e
word ("r i gh t s t r e s s e dge") . I t i s f ur t h e r demo n s t r a t e d
t h a t t h e t o n a l c o n t o ur o f a word may b e d e r i ve d w i t hou t
k n ow i ng i f the word h a s Ac c e n t 1 or A c c e n t 2. Th i s i s
a c c omp l i sh e d by a m a p ping ru l e th a t a s s o c i a t e s a H L
t o n e s e qu e n c e t o t h e word a c c o rd i ng t o t h e word ' s s t r e s s
e dg e t o d e r i ve t h e a cce n t t o n a l c o n t o ur. A c c e n t i n
S t o ckho l m Swed i s h i s t h u s se e n t o b e t h e c omb i n a ti o n o f
s t r e s s a nd t o n e r e p r e s e nt a t i o n s wh i ch i nt e r a c t t o d e r i ve
two d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s- t o n e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , l a b e l e d " A c c e n t
1 " and "A c c e nt 2. "
I n t r odu c t i o n
1 .0
Words
A
i n S t o ckh o l m Swe d i s h have o n e o f two po s s i b l e
word w i t h A c c e n t 1 h a s a
b l e. Whe n a n A c c e n t
t h e d i s c ours e,
t o ne.
1 word
h owe v e r,
the
h i gh t o n e
i .e .,
h i gh l ight e d
s t r e s s e d sy l l a b l e
h i gh
t o n e wh i ch
t h e word ( c f .
Bru c e
f ocus
(c f.
in
h a s a r i s i ng
Bru c e
l ow t o n e
1 977).
A
f a l l i ng t o n e o n t h e s t r e s s e d sy l l a-
Wh e n a n A c c e n t 2 word
t i ona l
is
in
f ocus ,
o c curs o n
1977,
Bru c e
there
i s a n add i -
a p o s t s t r e s s sy l l a b l e
&
GArd i ng
1978 ,
in
GArd i ng
.
Re c e nt l y,
the
i n f o c u s,
wh i ch ma rks
word w i t h A c c e nt 2 h a s a
1977)
is
s t r e s s e d sy l l a-
Th i s c o n t o u r may be d e s c r i b e d a s t he Acc e n t 1
p l us the
ble .
l ow t o n e o n t h e
accents .
i nterest
wi th
i n t ona l
t h e adve n t
phe n ome n a ,
- 153 -
of n o n- l i ne ar ph o n o l ogy a nd
a u t o s e gme n t a l
ana lyses o f
t h e Swe d i sh
be e n p u t
a cc e n t s h a v e
f or t h
( c f.
&
P i e rr eh umb e r t
B a i l ey 1988,
L o r e n t z 1984,
S c hm i d 1987 ,
c om i ng) .
f i r s t two a n a l y s e s p r o p o s e a s i ng l e t o n a l
Th e
whi c h ma p s in two
d i f f e r e n t way s
c o n t ours.
Th e
t i e r f or
e a ch a c c e n t .
Be ckma n
in c l ud e
cannot
a c c e nt
Lo r e nt z
be
not
l ex i c a l
the a c c e n t o f a
In
p l a c e.
B a i l ey
tha t Ac c e nt
1
Th ey a r e ,
state
word
be
( 1988) ,
the
e xp l i c i t l y
the
word's
a c c e nt
there f ore ,
l ex i c a l
e n t ry.
wh e t h e r a c c e nt
but h i s ana l ys i s r e q u i r e s
k n own
before
o n t h e o t h e r h a nd,
are
that
Th ey,
e xp l i c i t l y
or d e r i ve d ,
p h o n o l og i c a l
thus ,
in
t ona l
a nd P i e rr e h umb e r t a nd
i n Swe d i sh .
state
a nd A c c e n t 2
the poss i b l e
(1987 )
p r e di c t e d
does
is
a l so
i nf o rmat i o n
(1984)
a s s i gnme n t
that
S chmid
t i er
t h e two a c c e n t
l a t t e r two a n a l yses pr o p o s e a d i f f er e n t
( f o r t h c oming)
a s signme nt
t o d e r i ve
B e c kma n f o r t h -
c ov e r
ma pp i n g t ak e s
it
i s pro p o s e d
t e rms u s e d
re pre s e nt a t i o n s o f
i nt e r p re t a t i o n o f
t o d e n o te
Swe d i sh wo rds .
p h ono l ogi c a l
s t ru c t ur e
r a t her t h a n a p r e c o nd i t i o n d e t e rm i n i ng s u c h s t r u c t ur e . l.
Th i s pa p e r h a s
i s to
two r e l a t e d p u r p oses .
d emo n s t r a t e t h a t
Swe d i sh
of
a
f i rs t
word
(l
i s p r e d i c t a b l e for mo s t o f t h e vo c a bu l ary.
i s n o t new
(c f .
J e n s e n 1980a
Th e
others
a r e pred i ct e d
rather than
E l ert
a nd b,
amo n g o t h e r s ) .
f r om t h e
t h e a c c en t
Th e
1977,
Li n e l l
1972,
a n a l y s i s pro p o s e d h e r e,
f r om t h e
d i re c t l y
the
GArd i ng
L i n d a u 1970,
(e x c e p t
th e p r e s e nce o f a
S p e c i f i c a l l y,
1972,
J e n s e n 1980b)
ph o n o l o g i c a l
f r om
pre -
s ur f a c e
or
a c c e nt
is
- 154 -
Th i s
R i sche l
h ow e v e r,
s t r u c t ur e
v owe l
in
i de a
H a ug e n 1967 ,
i n that
pred i cted
s t ru c t ur e o f t h e word .
or 2)
1963.
d i ffers
the a c c e nts
o f t h e word
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s,
p o s t�e s s
pur p o s e
in
s u ch a s
t h e word .
f r om t h e me t r i c a l
Th e s e c o nd p u r p o� e o f
t ona l
c o n t our
of
a word
th i s p a p e r
dir e c t l y
t i e r a nd the
f r om the me t ri c a l
r a t h e r t h a n f r om k n ow l e d g e
demo n s t r a t e d t h a t
s h ow t h a t
a c c e nt
of
s e gme n t a l
the word's a c c e n t .
i n Swe d i sh
t i o n sh i p .
( 1988) ,
t ur e ,
1 a nd A c c e n t 2
l i es
i t dif f e r s s ub s t a n t i a l l y
tona l
t i er ,
Th i s
i s p rima r i l y
due
here
t ak e s
i n t o a c c ou n t
a
to
l ar g e r
it
is
the d i f f er e n c e
i n t h e s p i r i t o f B a i l ey
i n c o n t e nt:
the
Thus,
the s t r e s s -t o n e r e l a ­
a nd ma p p i ng r u l e d i f f e r
s e s.
the word
i s a c ov e r t e rm f o r t h e
in
Whi l e t h e a n a l y s i s h e r e i s
t i e r) may
s t ru c t ur e o f
r e l a t i o n s h i p betwe e n s t r e s s a nd t o n e a n d t h a t
b e t we e n Ac c e n t
the
( r e pr e s e n t e d h e r e by a n a u t o s e gme n­
t a l ma p ping b e t we e n a t o n a l
be d e r i ve d
i s to
the
in
fact
f o o t s t ruc­
t he two a n a l y­
tha t
the a n a l ysis
of
t h e Swe d i sh
port i on
vo c a bu l a ry .
Th e p a p e r pr o c e e d s a s
n o l o gy u s e d
here i s
s cr i pt i on
of
pre s e nt ed .
Th i rd,
of
a
word
the
d e f i n e d.
accents
it
can
f o l l ows .
F i r s t,
S e c o nd,
based
t h e a c c e n t t e rm i ­
the d i s t r i bu t i o n d e ­
o n me t r i c a l
i s d e mo n s t r a t e d t h a t
be
d e t e rm i n e d
the
d i re c t l y
s t r u c tu r e i s
t ona l
c o n t our
f r om the me t r i c a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e word.
Ac c e nt
a c c e n t s,
pa p e r,
wo rd
and Ac c e nt
s i nc e
h oweve r ,
a c c e nt
a c c e n t s.
tut e s
1
the
In
a
word
I wi l l
be c au s e
E ng l i s h ,
2
are
has
at
u s e the
there
f or
o f t e n referred
mo s t
one
d i f f erent
e x amp l e,
the
i n t o n a ti o n c o n t o u r
amo ng o t h e r s) .
In
P i t ch ,
( c f.
i n E ng l i sh,
L i b e rma n
Swe d i sh ,
on
- 155 -
1975,
the
In t his
i ns t e ad o f
type s
word a c c e nt
prima ry s t re s s e d sy l l a b l e mi nus t h e
t i o n of t h i s sy l l a b l e.
t h em.
accent
t e rm p i t ch
are
of
t o as word
p i t ch
o f word
const i ­
i n f o rma ­
is s u p p l i e d by the
P i e rr e h umb e r t
other
h a nd ,
1980 ,
t h e word
a c c e nt
c ons t it u t e s
t h e p i t ch sha p e
others ) .
t h e p rima ry s t r e s s ed sy l l a b l e
of
th i s
sy l l a b l e
(c f .
B ru c e
s t re s s a c c ent a nd the word a c c e n t o f Swe d i sh
red to here as
two
as
p i t ch a c c e n t s
by t h e
not
of
be re f er-
Swe dish are a l so r e f e r r e d t o
mor e s p e ci f i c a l l y ,
t e rms A c c e nt
l a t t e r t e rms h e r e s i n c e
grave are
wi l l
pit c h a c c e n t .
a s word to n e s o r,
we l l
1977 among
word a c c en t o f English h a s b e e n r e f e rr e d t o a s
Th e
Th e
a s we l l a s
the
a ccur a t e
v i a n ac c e n t t y p o l ogy
as
and gr a v e ,
acute
1 a n d A c c e nt 2 .
I wi l l
i nt erpre t a t i o n s
f or a l l
of
as
u s e the
a c u t e and
acc e n t s w i th i n t h e
S c a nd i n a-
GArding 1977).
(c f .
2 .0 A c c en t d i s t r i bution
A c c ord i ng t o L i n d a u
initial
stres s
(1970),
wi th
a
pos t s t r e s s
A c c e n t 1 o c c u r s on o t h e r s t r e sse d
d i sh,
i n c l ud e s
f i na l ,
position a s we l l
as
A cc e n t 1
h owe ve r ,
" + t o na l
a c cen t "
� t on a 1
in i t i a l
Et o n a I
to
and
s tre s s.
Th e s e
wit h
are
s t r e s s on f o n .
i n Swe -
a n t e p e n u l t i ma t e
n umb e r o f
s t r e s s.
pre s en t e d
in
Lin d a u's
(1),
whe r e
2.
ro�
[t
t
acc e n
I
U
NAVAdV
stres
]
__
t h i s ru l e.
e .g. ,
F i rs t ,
2 bu t
l ...
�
V...
there
are
d o n o t have
f i r s t memb e r is
a
t e l e f o nnumme r ' t e l e ph on e
In Swe d i sh ,
- 156 -
the word.
ini t i a l
c omp o un d s whos e
s t re s s ,
in
s u bs t a n t i a l
i n Swe d i s h t h a t r e c e i ve A cc e n t
word w i t h n o n- i n i t ia l
n umb e r , '
is
!J
Th e r e are two e x c e p t i o n s
com p o unds
A
a l so has
f or A c c en t
-�
sy l lab l e
wor d s w i th
sy l l a b l e s wh i ch ,
monosy l la b l e s .
s t a nd s
acc e n
o c c ur s on
p e nu l t i mat e,
a c c e n t a s s i g nme n t ru l e
(1970)
(1) .
word s ,
2
Acc e n t
the p r i ma ry s t re s s
o f a c omp ound
the
f i rs t
Fre n c h
is
c omp o u n d
l oans as
in i t i a l
a l wa y s t h e
the
s t r e s s,
is o l a t ion .
In
memb e r
in
ord er
the s e
to
the
words
in
wi l l
have
f or
i s pre s e n t e d
accen
.
The a ng l e d
t ona 1
1fs.
the s e
c a s e s,
su f f i x ,
accen
pr i ns e s s a
a n a l y s i s,
the s e
n o t have
initial
J
c a t e g o ry
t o c o l l a p s e t he two e nv i r o nme n t s
i n it i a l s t r e s s
words
'
w i t h a fo l l ow i ng
f o l l ow i ng s t r e s s e d vowe l
a l so r e c e iv e A c c e n t
w i t h a n a t i ve d e riva t i o n a l
pr i n c e s s
.
In
'
s t r e s s or a
f o l l ow i n g s t r e s s e d v owe l
i n the
2
a s s i gn
revis e d
a c c e nt
c orr e c t l y t o t h e s e wo r d s
Th ere are t h u s
A c c e nt
ru l e
ini t i a l
( 2)
f or
s tress wi th a
stre s s w it h a fo l l ow i ng s t r e s s
stressed
n ouns.
c o l l a p s e th e thr e e e nv ironme nts
If
not
it
is
A c ce n t
,
it w i l l
2
in a
f o l l ow i ng vowe l
i n the
wo rd ,
,
a nd
i nd e e d p o s s i b l e t o
i n t o o n e ru l e
t h e e nvir o nme n t s )
- 157 -
does
they do
.
t hr e e e nv i r o nme n t s
framework :
in
s i nce
(1970)
r e c e i ve A c c e n t 1 ,
Th e
f or t w o o f
L i nd a u's
wo r d s w i l l
wo rd.
don e
Th e
l .. l4s t re s �
� s t r e s � L' V
1
0
L
l exii:ca l
p e nu l t ima t e s t r e s s e d n o u ns
e . g.,
p e nu l t i ma t e
vowe l .
� <i:::. �G \---
s t re s s w i th a
non n a t i ve
n o nin i tia l
Li nd a u
s o tha t A c c e n t 2 w i l l b e
(1)
L= a ny
are
s e gme n t a l
in
.
S e c o nd,
Th e s e
stress
(2 ) .
i n t o o n e ru l e :
and n on i n i tia l
in t h e word
2.
E
bra c k e t s s e rve
f o r A c ce nt 2
vowe l,
-�
contain �
may
.
�
in
not have
f i na l
a s s i g n e d a l so t o w or d s w i t h a fo l l ow i ng s t re s s e d
r ev i s e d ru l e
ass i gned t o
C omp o un d s w i th
there f ore,
a c cou n t
ru l e
sy l l a b l e
i s o l a tio n .
f i r s t memb e r,
s i nce
rev i s e s
(1970)
s t res s e d
(as L i ndau has
not be an e l egant
sta t eme n t .
t i on o f
to t h e
Wha t
I
propos e ,
the A c c e n t
loca t i o n o f
unites
the
2 e nvir onmen t s,
prim a ry
d i s j u n c t i ve
t h e s e gme n t a l
ana l ys i s
s t ru c t ur e o f t h e word
2.1 Metrical
f oot
in
a nd - s t a nd s
n e c e s s a ry
s
+
in
foot
o f u ns t re s s e d sy l l a ble s
(1977,
h e n c e f or t h LP) ,
b i n a ry b r a nchi n g
o r w(e ak)
t r e e who s e
a c c o rd i n g t o
the
(3) ,
+ s t a nd s
wh ere
.
a nd
Accor-
the
foot
node s
are
f o l l ow i ng rule s.
+s t r e s s
sy l l a b l e,
f or a s t r e s s e d sy l l a b l e
f or an u n s t r e s s e d sy l l a ble.
w
s
*w
+
f or n od e s h i g h e r
if
i t br a nch e s
node
i s s tro ng
(4)
w
�
s
A
,
in
the
in t h e LP
t ree ,
Oth e rw i s e ,
.
illustrated in
it
the
r i gh t
node
is
i s we ak a nd t h e l e f t
(4).
�
s
w
I
Th e me t r i cal re pre s e n t a t i on s
zona
,
i s ba s e d on t h e
a s t r o n g n o d e a l ways dom i n a t e s a
i l l ustrated
s t r o ng
2 d e s c ri ptio n
bu t wh i ch
Liberman & Pr i n c e 1977) .
(cf.
( i n c l ud i ng z e r o )
labe l e d s(t rong)
Second ,
word
2
f oo t
r e pre s e n t e d b y a
(3)
the
Th e d e s c r i ptio n
.
L i b e rma n and Prince
d i ng t o
F i rst,
in
is a u n i t wh i ch c o n s i s t s o f one s t r e s s e d sy l l a b l e
some numbe r
is
wh i ch c orr e l ate s A c c e n t
stress
A c c e nt
a d i f f e r e nt d e s c r ip-
repr e s e nt a t i o n
2 . 1. 1 Th e me t r i c a l
A
is
in s t e a d ,
f or
Ame r i ca ,
f r amework a re i l lus t r at e d in
- 158 -
Pame l a,
(5).
a n d Ar i -
IA
(5 )
A\
-
trees
wh i ch
i l l us t ra t e thre e
resu l t
pr i ma ry
s w s w
Ar i z o n a
+ - + -
s w w
P ame l a
+ - -
w s w w
Ame r i c a
- + -
Th e s e
J\S
1\ 1\
f r om
stress
t hr e e
of
e a ch
d i f fe r e n t me t r i c a l
d i f f erent
word
stress
s t ruc t ur e s
p a t t e r n s.
Th e
c o r r e s p o nds t o t h e sy l l a b l e
d om i n a t e d e nt i r e l y by s t r o n g n o d e s .
S i n c e the
f r om
me t r i c a l
r e s u l t i ng
t i on
s t ru c t ur e
i n t e rna l
trees have
as
in
( a)
feet ,
as
in
(b)
b i nary
S ec o n d ,
s t ru c t e d
in
is
br a n c h i ng
feet ,
w i th i n
h e n c e f or t h Q).
Q
of
word a f t e r
f oot
c on s t r u c -
fo l l ow i ng t w o mod i f i c a t i o n s.
( 6a ) ,
are repre s e n t ed a s
d u e to
trees
f or
f l at
t h e o v e r r i ch s t r u c t ur e
( c f.
Pr i nc e
1 983,
ph o n o l o g i ca l
c o n s t i t u e n t s.
the
p h o n o lo g i c a l
word
( t h e t e rm i n a l
Ne spor &
j us t i fic a t i o n ) .
as
e l eme n t
of
(W )
are con-
i ns t e a d o f
t h e sy n t a c t i c
the
tree ,
Th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t we e n W and Q mu s t b e ma d e
sma l l e r t h a n Q.
those
o f the
-
for e x amp l e.
syn t a c t i c word
wh e n W i s
but w i t h t h e
�
Th e r e a s o n f or t h e ch a n g e
1986,
1981 ) ,
s w w
Pame l a
+ -
-
Voge l
Hay e s
( 6b ) .
A\
the
w i t h p r e d i c t i ng s t r e s s
t h e LP mod e l
w i t h th e
s w w
P ame l a
+ -
of
not
(c f .
be e n c o n s t ru c t e d ,
t e r n a ry
t r e es ,
is
c o ns t i t u e n t s t ru c t ur e
i s ad o pt e d h e r e ,
F i rs t ,
(6)
c o nc e r n h e r e
cas e s
wh e r e
W i s d e t e rm i n e d t o b e sma l l e r t h a n
an
i nt erna l
- 159 -
s a ndh i
ru l e d o e s
not
a p p l y acr o s s s t em o r
that the
d oma i n o f
198 6
f or
the
b o u n d a r i e s,
f o l l ow i n g
ways
t h i s ca s e,
A s t em may
t h e a f f i xe s
a comp ound may a l s o
com p o u n d memb e r s
pre f i xe s o f
s u f f ixe s
jo i n t o t h e
as
jo i n
l ast W of
in
t h a n Q.
the
i n care f u l
s l e e ve' ,
th e
o t h e r G e rma n i c
i n Swe d i sh .
In
Th i s
doma i n
in
Th e memb e r s o f
l an gu a g e s wh e re
a f f ixes do not,
f i rst
W,
198 6
l a ng u a g e s
a nd t h e
(c f .
f o r E ng l i sh ) ,
t h e memb e r s o f
O n e s our c e o f
s p e e ch.
For e x amp l e,
G A rd i ng
( 19 67 ) ,
pra s t arm
Boo i j
W may
a c omp o u nd
e v i de n c e f or
(pras t+arm )
ru l e s
(c f.
e xamp l e
G A rd i ng
'pr i e s t
sy l l a b i f i e d a s pras t -arm .
is
Th i s sy l l a b i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n r u n s cou n t e r t o
tarm.
Swe d i s h s y l l a-
1967 ) ,
wh i ch p r e d i ct pras-
th a t
the sy l l a b i f i c a t i o n
i l l u s t ra t e s
Swe d i sh c o i nc i d e s w i t h t h e s t em b o u n d a rie s w i t h i n
in th e c omp ound rat h e r t ha n w i t h t h e com p o u nd b o u nd a ry.
a wo rd
In
f r om b l o c k e d r e sy l l a bi f i ca t i o n w i t h i n a compound
from
b i f i ca t ion
a f f i xe s .
c omp o u n d .
S p ec i f i ca l l y ,
f o rm i nde p e nd e n t W's
t his c ome s
from it s
W's b u t
to
1983 for Dutch a nd N e s p o r & V o g e l
be sma l l er
Ne s por & Vogel
f orm W's o n th e i r own .
i nd e p e n d e n t
W may b e
t h e W d e f i n i t i o n a cr o s s
f orm a W a p a rt
a comp o u n d
I n Swe d i sh ,
(c f .
f o rm i nd e p e nd e n t W's .
f r om
i n d i ca t i ng
th a n Q.
i s sma l l e r
an e x t e n s i ve d i s cu s s i o n o f
l a ngu a ge s ) .
the
affix
t h e ru l e
Q in
sma l l e r t h a n
c e rt a i n
l e ve l
d oma i n e x i s t s
i n Swe d i s h wh i ch
is
Thu s
sma l l e r t h a n
Q.
2 . 1.2 C o n s t ruct i ng f e et
i n Swe dish
Swe dis h mak e s u s e o f two f o o t
ty p e s ,
'unmark e d' a nd 'ma rk e d' f o o t ,
i l l us t r a t e d
(7)
u nmarked
s
w
f o ot
mark e d
w
- 160 -
wh i ch
f oot
s
I wi l l
in
(7) .:-z.
ca l l
the
Th e t wo
fe e t r e f l ec t
a s s i g nme n t
on the
i n Swe d i sh :
Swe d i sh
(c f.
is
a l so
S p e c i f i ca l l y,
wo rd s,
a l so
of a
L i ne l l
1 972 ) .
N o n n a t i ve
s t re s s.
Th e s e
Fre nch s tres s r u l e.
most l y o n
s tr e s s
are
a s s i g nme n t
for-,
e nt -
wh i ch
i m f ormat i o n .
mu s t
i gnore
S i m i l ar l y ,
mus t b e
occu r
(1972 ) ,
in
found on a l l
ru l e s
a s s i g n i ng s t re s s .
s u f f i xe s ,
the
i gnored .
mo s t l y
a t t ract
on
pr i ma ry
c o r r e c t l y a s s i g n e d s t re s s by t h e
Words
n a t i ve word s
S t re s s
e nd i n g s ,
accord i ng t o L i n e l l
word s
( he nce f o r t h "Fr e nch
morpho l o g i ca l
Both
ge - ,
be- ,
d er i va t i o na l
n o n n a t i ve words,
to
in f l e ct i o n al
word whe n
s t re s s l e s s p r e f i x e s
wi th
n a t i ve
(Li n e l l
1972 ) ,
d er i va t i o n s ,
f ou n d
r e t ai n s t r e s s o n t h e
acco rding t o the G e rma n i c s t ress rule .
Feet ,
o f p r i ma ry
i n Swe d i sh ,
s t re s s
princ i p l e t h a t
Both
a r e co n s t r uct e d ba s e d o n t he
in
t h e word a nd o n t h e
u nmark e d a nd
mark e d
a s t rong n o d e ha s a n
t e rs .
Th e
two ty p e s
voca bu l ary a s
t h e mark e d
of
f o l l ows .
f o o t co n struct i o n
Whe n p r i mary s t re s s
is
f oot
i l l u s t r a t e wo rds w i t h
a r e u n b o u n d e d w i th i n W ;
f e et a r e d i s t r i bu t e d
pr i ma ry s tr e s s
al l
sy l l a b l e s
i n a ny
g ath e r s
p o s t s tre s s sy l l a b l e (s )
fe e t
u n s p ec i f i e d n umb e r
Wh e n
fo o t g a t h e r s
u nmark e d
l oca t i o n
a s t r o ng n o d e mu s t dom i n a t e a s t re s s e d s y l l a ­
i .e .,
the
s tr e s s
s e n s i t i ve
Swe d i s h
" G e rma n i c s t r e s s r u l e" ) ,
f i na l
a re n e v e r s t r e s s e d .
t h i s p art
ble .
(h e nce f or t h
l oans re t a i n
s t re s s ru l e ")
f or s t r e s s
G e rma n i c wo r d s a r e t y p i c a l l y s t r e s s e d
f i rst sy l l a b l e
wh i l e Fre nch
root,
t h e co n f l i ct i ng t e nd e nc i e s
i nto
i n t h e Swe d i sh
i s word
i nt o a s i ng l e
other pos i t i on
the
a
o f we a k s i s ­
- 16 1 -
foot .
i n the word,
s t r e s s e d sy l l a b l e a nd the
f oo t .
i n i t i a l and
f i na l ,
f i na l
Th e
e x amp l e s
s tre s s.
in
(8 )
(8)
/\
�
w s
s t ud e n t
- +
s
w
f l icka
+
, girl'
In
the s e
e x amp l e s ,
the
u nm a rk e d
f oo t
is
f ou nd o n a
G e rman ic word a n d the mark e d f o o t is
f ou n d o n a Fre n c h word.
The
o n both k i nds o f words,
u nmark e d
h owe ver,
f oot
may
due to the
be
p o s s ibi l i t y o f
s u f f i x e s o n F r e nch loan s ,
(9)
/\
s w
b e t ala
+
' t o pay '
-
In
there
th e
f ou n d
unstressed
as il l u s t rat e d in
i n f l ec t i o n al
(9) .
s
w
s t ud e n t e n
+
' t h e s t ud e n t '
-
-
add i t i o n
to
the
u nmark e d
foot
i n th e s e e xample s ,
is a n o n branching f o o t wh i ch d om i n a t e s t h e syl l able
l eft
of
th e
"d e f au l t
f o o t."
reas o ns.
In
the
p r i m a ry
s tr e s s .
I t s p r e s e nce
LP
is
I will
r e qu i r e d
framework ,
feet
cal l
th i s
f or t h e
s u ch
a s in
to
f oot
a
f ol l ow i n g
( 10)
are
allowe d .
( 1 0)
w s w
beta l a
+ -
Bin a ry branch i ng f e e t ,
branching feet,
so the
how e v e r,
have b e e n
s tr uctur e in
- 162 -
( 1 0)
r e p l ac e d by n-ary
is
n o t allowe d
in
t h i s a n aly s i s .
a l l owed s i n c e
(1 1 )
Th e
it
n-a ry
i s not
s t ru c ture
a poss i b l e
in
f oo t
(11)
is
a l s o n ot
i n Swe d i s h .
�
w s w
be t a l a
- + -
Sy l l a b l e s t o
form a
the
l eft
of
f o o t o n t h e i r own,
a n u nmark e d
as
f o o t must ,
i l l u s t r a t ed by th e
t h e r e f or e ,
e x amp l e s
in
(9) .
D e r i vat i o n s b ehave
words.
Th ose w i t h f i n a l
t e d ove r t h em
u nmark e d
is
s t r e s s hav e
both type s o f
(13)
wh i c h c o n s i s t
f e e t w i t h i n e a ch
w i th i n
/\
the
W.
W,
d e f au l t
f o ot
o f mo r e tha n o n e W,
c o n-
A
a c c ording
c om p o u nd,
w i th
a
to
the
there f ore,
f e e t.
s w
s
( huvud ) ( s t ad )
+
+
, c a p i ta l ' ( head t own )
-
t h em,
�
-
stre s s
c on s t r u c-
w
w s
f a br i k a t
- +
'produ c t'
s w w
skape l s e
+
' c r e a t i o n'
s t ru c t
f oot
( 1 2a ) .
(b)
comp o u n d s ,
a mark e d
i n f l ect e d
a nd t ho s e w i t h s t r e s s e l s e wh e r e h a v e an
non i n i t i a l
�
F i na l l y ,
s ame way a s s i mp l e a nd
f o ot c o n s t ru c t ed over
wh e n s t r e s s
( 12 ) (a )
( 12b ) ,
the
w w s
s
w
( t e l e f o n ) ( numme r )
- - +
+
- 163 -
lo c a t i o n o f
may c o nt a i n
Ther e
c a n n o t be
i s one type
of
ass i gned stre s s
o r Fre n ch st r e s s ru l e.
the
word
i n t r o du c t io n,
d e r i va t i o n a l
are
n o n na t i ve
stress.
Th e G e rman i c st r e s s ru l e ,
i nitia l
s t r e ss ,
1972 ) .
Th ese
w i t h n a t i ve
o r k op i a
' pr i n c ess'
have
p e nu l t i ma t e
h oweve r ,
wi l l
a ss i g n t h em
a nd t h e Fre n c h s t r e s s ru l e w i l l
a s s i g n t h em
st r e ss .
Fr e n c h s t ress ru l e
su f f i x ,
as p r o p os e d
in t h e me t r i c a l
as the
if
c o rr e c t l y
ass i g n e d
s t ress
by t h e
t h e ru l e d o e s n o t s e e t h e d e r i va t i o na l
i n L i ne l l
fr amework,
(1972 ) .
Th i s
i s a c c omp l i s h e d,
by a n e x t r ame t r i c a l i t y ru l e,
su c h
f o l l ow i ng .
I+ d e r i v s � f fl
t: G e rma nIC J
Eex�
-->
Ex t r ame t r i c a l i ty ru l e s ,
to s t r ess
-J
/
E
wh i c h se rve
a s s i g nme n t a l g o r i t hms,
N
Fr e n c
are
d e r i va t i o n o f pr i n s e ss a
in
i l lu s t rate d
1
/p r i n s e ssa/ -� p r i nse s s ( a)
i nv i s i b l e
o r d e r e d b e f o re s t r e s s
( cf .
is
�
t o r e nd e r e nd s
a s s i g nme n t a nd f o ot c o ns t r u c t i o n ru l e s
Hay e s 1982 ) .
( 15 ) .
2
-->pr i nse ss ( a )
3
-->
+
A
w
s
pr i nse ss ( a)
A
4
-�
w
s
pr i nsessa
+
1.
2.
3.
4.
in
words
Th e s e words may be
(15)
that
me n t i o n e d
st ems
pr i n s e s sa
e .g.,
( c f.
( 14 )
h ow e ve r ,
th o s e wor d s ,
' c o py'
f i na l
L i ne l l
Swe d i sh,
c or r e c t l y by e i t h e r t h e G e rma n i c
Th e s e a r e
that
e nd i ngs ,
in
mark s u f f i x a s e x t r ame t r i c a l
assign s t ress
c o nstru c t f e et
c o n s t ru c t a f o o t o v e r t h e e xtr ame t r i c a l
- 164 -
sy l l a b l e
Th e
Step 4
i s necessary
in
i s ru l e d o u t .
(11 )
2 . 2 The s t r ess
In L i n d au's
t i on
is
(1970 )
a n a l ys i s ,
ini t i a l"
a n o t h e r s t r e ss
i n the
s t r e ss
( or
word. Th a t
a
s e c o nd
st r e ss
s t r ess d i st r i bu t i o n
is
Tha t
i s,
sy l l a b l e of
wh e n
a word ,
e dg e o f t h e word .
the
l as t
sy l l a b l e
of
the
is ,
s t r e ss
e l s e wh e r e .
s t r e ss d i s t r i bu-
A c c e nt
is
2 words have
i n t h e word) ,
Here ,
wh i l e
t h e r e l eva n t
l e ft s t r e ss e dge v e rsus r i gh t s t r e ss
p r i ma ry
stre s s
we may say t h a t
S i m i l ar l y ,
a t t h e r i gh t e dg e o f
not
the r e l evant
v e r s us "e l sewh e r e ," u n l e ss t h e r e
A c c e n t 1 words have
e dge .
t h e s t ru c t ur e
e dge
"wo rd
initial
f or the s ame r e a s o n t h a t
wh e n
t h e word,
t h e word .
occurs
it
on
the
f irst
i s f ound a t the
p r i mary s t r e ss
w e may say t h a t
l e ft
o c curs on
it
i s f ou nd
Wor d s whose p rima ry s t r e s s
is
l e f t mo s t o r r i ghtmost sy l l a b l e o f t h e word may st i l l
be ass i g n e d t o a
s t r e ss i s
f ou n d
word. Th i s
is
( 16 )
word e dg e
in
the
i l l us t ra t e d
l e f tmost
in
-
A
w
s
p r i nsessa
+
A
s
w
w w s
t e l e f o n numme r
-
+
t h e s e words ,
o r r i gh t most
foot
prim a ry
of t h e
(16 ) .
w w s
t e l e fon
+
�
in
�
A
s
w
f l i c ka
-
s i n c e,
+
St r ess d i s t r i bu t i o n
-
+
A
s w
be t a l a
I
+
-
�
s w w
be t a l a d e
-
+
-
' p a i d'
-
i n Swe d i sh may now
b e d e s c r i be d
in
t e rms o f a p a r ame t r i z e d s t r e ss e dge .
( 17 )
L e f t /R i gh t
St r e ss Edge : Th e p r i mary s t r e ss e d sy l l a b l e
o c c ur s a t t h e l e f t /r i gh t word e d g e o r i s
d om i n a t e d by
t h e l e f tmost/r i ghtmo s t fo o t of t h e word .
- 165 -
Aft er f e e t
are c ons t r u c t e d
d e t e rm i n e d .
The f ir s t st e p
sy l l a b l e
is
at
a
is
f o und.
a word e d g e ,
sponds
to
l o c at e d.
( 18 ) ,
then
the
If
it
t h e st r e s s e d g e
d e t e rm i ne
If
it
i s,
if
the
t he word
i s ass i gned
e d g e wh e r e t h e
s t r ess e d sy l l ab l e
edge
wh ere
i ts
i s not
d om i n a t i ng
a s s i g nme nt f o r b e t a l a
l e ft
s t re s s
is
the s t re s s ed
f ou n d a t
i s a s s ig n e d t h e s t r e s s e dge t h a t
word
L S E=
word,
c orre s p o n d s t o t h e word
Str e s s e dg e
whe r e
is to
word e dg e .
t h e s t ress edge t h a t
sy l l ab l e
f or a
is
c o rre f oot
is
i l l u s tr a t e d
in
e d g e a n d RSE= r ight s t r e s s
edge.
LSE
(18 )
RSE
I�
be
ta
la
+
The o p p o s i t e s i tua t i o n
word
wh e r e
e dg e s ,
i .e . ,
the
a
f r om
that
stressed
i l l ustrated
sy l l ab l e
monosy l l a b l e.
is
Th e s e
in
(18)
is a
f o u n d a t b o t h word
words
ar e
ass i gne d a
r igh t s t r e s s by a d e f a u l t ru l e.
Th e d is t r i bu t i o n
stated
(19 )
i n te rms
of
the
o f A c c e nt
1
and
A c c e n t 2 may n ow b e
s t r e s s edge .
L e f t s tre s s e d g e = A c c en t 2
R ig h t stre s s e dg e
A c c e nt 1
=
Th e w o r d s
i n the
2 word s,
and th e
Ac c e nt
1 words .
be cau s e,
l e ft
c o l umn
word s
Th e word
a l t h o ugh
i ts
( 16)
are e x amp l e s
i n th e r i gh t
t e l e f on
str e s s
stres s d e s cr ip t i o n d o e s.
in
c o l umn are e x amp l es of
a p p ear s
in
patt ern does
Wh e n th e word
- 166 -
o f A c c e nt
is
bo t h c o l umns
n o t cha ng e ,
in
i s o l at ion,
its
it
h a s s t ress
e dg e a n d
c om p ou nd,
t h e word
o n t h e r i gh tmos t s y l l ab l e .
i s a s s i g n e d A cce n t 1.
As
the
i t s stress
is
f ound
h owe ver,
( i .e. ,
the
c om p o u n d ) .
Th e
s t re s s e d g e a nd
i s a s sig n e d A c c e n t 2.
cha n g e p r e d i ct s
the
I n s ummary,
Acc e n t
2
in i t i a l
s tre s s ,
acce n t
the
s t re s s e dg e
e dg e
of
2 . 3 L e f t s t r e s s e dge
memb e r
i n the
l e ft
c ompound
has
d e scr i p t i on
Th a t
is ,
s t r ess
l oc a t i on
Th e a n a l y s i s h e r e
(20 )
s o l ut i o n t o s ome
pre s e nted
Mo n omo r ph em i c b i sy l l a b l e s
- e n va t t e n ' wa t e r '
- e l s ege l
' sa i l '
- e r l age r
' s t oc k'
u n d e r l y i ng re p r e sen t a t i on ,
El i a s s o n
Lin d a u 1970 ,
1 972
f or
a p p l i e s a f t e r a c c e nt
men t a l
sur f ace
st r e s s,
h av e a
a nd
l eft
1 all
t h e s e ca s e s.
in
(20 ) .
e nd i ng
a
s i nc e
Ris che l
r e v i e w).
a s s i g nme n t ,
f orm.
Th e
ba s e d
Th e
f i rs t ca s e
in
monosy l l a bl e s
1963,
An
als o
i n p art
i n the
t h ey r e c e i v e Acc e n t
ohma n
1 966;
1
cf
e p e n t h e s i s ru l e ,
p r o du c e s t h e
re s u l t
- 167 -
e xc e p t i on s
is
of
The s e wor d s a r e o f t e n a n a l y z e d a s
H a ug e n 1967,
l e ft
e x c e p t i on s
ru l e .
is
a
s t r ess e d g e .
t o L i ndau' s
t o b e c on s i der e d
foot of
Word s w i t h A c c e n t
i n t h i s s e c t ion a r e
on L i n d au's
a
word s w i t h
al l
Th e e xce p t i o n s d i s c uss e d
( 1 970 )
of
un i t e s the
w i t h pe n u l t i ma t e
i n a dd i t i o n t o Ac c e n t 2 .
i n c omm o n a r i gh t
f ir s t
Th e s t re s s d e s c rip tion
e nv i ro nme n t s.
f or e i g n n o u n s
r e g a rd l e s s
s tr e s s
cha n g e .
s tress
d i s j u nct i ve
comp ou n d s
have
I t h a s a r i gh t
of
( c f.
a l so
wh i c h
corr e c t s e g-
t h e d e r i va t i o n
i s an
ini t i a l
p l us
c orre c t r e s u l t
Th a t
a s mo n o sy l l a b l e s
i s,
'm i rror'
is
E l i as s on
thus ,
( 1972)
t i on
p a i rs s uch
is
to
a s s ege l
1
f or
that
' sa i l '
them ,
al l
E l i asson
gro u n d s that
t h e s o l e mo t i va­
a nd
b e twe e n
spege l
initial
' m i rr o r, '
s e c o nd rece i ve s
s tre s s
whe r e t h e
A c c e n t 2.
i n th i s
it
c a t e g ory b e b i sy l l ab i c
wi th
pre fers t h e
p l us
F i rs t ,
he states that
a
d i a cr i t i c
bisy l l a b l e
e pe nthe s i s
in
t o ass i g n
p l u s d i a cr i t i c
members
one
l o ok
(wh i c h
needed
in
A c c o rd i ng t o
t h e e p e n t h e s i s rule
c omp l i c a t e d ru l e
s y nco p e
a nd e p e n t h e s i s
a n a l ys i s .
t o e l im i n a t e
it is a
s o l u t i o n s)
set
pro p o s e s,
f ew A c c e n t 2 c a s e s .
i s d e s i rab l e
f o r two r e a s o n s .
he
i t e l i m i nat e s t h e e p e n t h e sis ru l e
mo n o sy l l a b l e
of
1 mo n omor phem i c
a nd t h e
word s
(1972)
s o l ut i o n be c aus e
S e c o nd,
Accent
according t o E l i a s s o n ) ,
t o n e t o t h e re l a t i ve l y
Elia s s o n,
the
d i f f ere n t i a t e
t h e u n d e r l ying re pre s e n t a t i o n,
the
wh e n a cce n t
o f t h e s e mo n omor p h e m i c b i syl l a b l e s r e c e i ve A c c e n t
(ne a r l y 4/5 o f
i ns t e ad ,
spege l
i n t h e u n d e r l ying r e p r e ­
s t r e s s e dg e
l e ft
on the
f i rs t rece i ve s A c c e n t 1
S i n c e mo s t
e .g.,
argu e s a g a i n s t p o s i t i ng a mo n o sy l l ab i c
h owe v e r,
f or th i s
type,
th i s
c orre c t l y r e c e i ve A c c e n t 2.
u n d e r l y i ng re pre s e n t a t i o n
b i sy l l a b l e s ,
t h e re f ore,
s t re s s e d g e a nd,
A c cent 2 wor d s o f
Th e s e w o r d s have a
a s s i g n e d a nd,
f r amework.
u n der l y i ng re pre s e n t a t i o n,
i n the
are p o s i t e d a s b i sy l l a b l e s
s e n t a tion .
to
s i n c e i t pro­
w i t h i n th e s t re s s e dge
t h e s e word s a r e a s s i g n e d a r i gh t
re c e i ve A c c e n t 1 .
l i t er a t ure
i n the
i s a p p e a l i ng
1 ca s e s
f or t h e A c c e n t
du c e s t h e
f orth
put
a na l ys i s
e p e n the s i s
a c c ou n t
Th e mo n o sy l l a b l e
s t re s s e d b i sy l l a b l e w i t h A c c e n t 1 .
is
i n Swe d i s h .
needed
i n both
"a p p l y t o disjo i n t s e t s mak i ng t h e
exact l y
- 168 -
l i ke
the
memb e r s
of
the
other s e t
and v i c e
l i ar s t ruct ur a l
wh i c h may
v e r s a. Thu s t h e se ru l e s e xh i b i t
a nd
s ugg e s t
funct i ona l
tha t
c omp l eme n t ar i ty.
j u s t o n e s i n g l e pro c e s s
a pe cu­
s ome t h i ng
is
i nv o l ve d"
(1972:187) .
In s pit e o f t h e
sy l l a b l e s
fact
that
F i rs t.
t a c t i c g r o u n d s by t h e
disy l l a b l e s
e nd i ng
on
s e gme n t o f
t h e rhyme
as
a
S e c o nd.
l o ok
1.
n.
- e n.
-e l .
rhyme s .
-er v i o l at e
f or
r.
Ep e n t h e s i s
for t h i s
f orms o f
s o n or i ty r e ­
S p e c i fi c a l l y.
f o rms
the
f i na l
i s a h i gh l y
i s mo t i v a t e d sy n ch r o n ­
pho n o t a c t i c v i o l a t i o n.
a l t h ough e p e n t h e s i s and
a l ik e .
e . g. ,
(1972) .
r e s o l ve s
Fur t h e rmo r e .
Epenthe s i s d o e s
de l e t e d by
syn c o p e ,
Wh e n
' b i l l s'
i f the
it
is
is
f or
i n o rd e r t o r e du c e
i n t h e word.
' m i rr ors '
o t h e r out.
i n s e rt e d o n l y
sync o p e make d i f f e r e n t
t h ey d o s o for d i ffere n t r e a s o n s . Synco p e
argue.
s t r a t e d above .
s e d l ar
s o l u t i on
b e c ome s s ege l .
larl b e c ome s speg l ar
v i o l at i on .
to be
t h e mon o sy l l ab i c
a c c ord i ng t o E l i a s s o n
I
is
pro­
f a c t that
numb e r o f unstre s s e d sy l l a b l e s
t h e s i s.
d i a cr i t i c
in the mo n osy l l a b i c
r em e dy
's a i l '
p l us
I
c omp l i c a t e d.
c a n b e mo t i va t e d o n ph o n o ­
sy l l ab l e
s o n o r o u s s e gme n t :
oc c u r s ,
t o a d i a c r i t i c a nd
e p e nthe s i s
in
st r i ct i ons
word s
is
u nd e r l y i ng mo n o­
t h e mo n o sy l l ab l e p l us e p e n t he s i s s o l u t i o n
thre e reas ons.
I s e gll
i s e qu a l
i n Swed i sh
pre f e rr e d ove r t h e b i sy l l ab l e
i ca l ly
p o s i t i ng
f or the A c c e n t 1 c a s e s
t h a t t h e e p e n t h e s i s ru l e
pose
that
i ns t e ad o f
s o no r i ty
the
not
Is p e g e l l
v i o l a t i o ns,
i ns e rt
a n leI wh i ch
Th e
s urfa c e form w i l l
i n s e r t e d.
it
from
- 169 -
n ot
as
do
i l l u­
cance l
e p e nt he t i c
+
Epe n­
* spege l ar.
ru l e s
e x amp l e.
d e r i ve d
e . g. .
the
e a ch
i s the n
leI
is
r e su l t i n a s o n o r i ty
s t ay s .
Is e d l l
Thus ,
th e
f orm
' bi l l '
p l us
larl
(p l ur a l
mark e r )
n i t e form
the
a n e p e n t h e t i c lei)
s e d l ar d o e s
rhyme - f i n a l
not
c o nt a i n
s o nora nt
There
is
n o n e e d,
the
i nd e f i -
p l u s lar/ .
The
a s o n o r i ty v i o l a t i on
i n t h e u n d er l y i ng r e pr e s e n-
t a t i o n Is e d l l b e c ome s t h e o n s e t o f
s urface.
( s ur f ace o f
f rom s e d e l
wh i c h c o n t a i n s
s ur f a c e form
s i nce
and not
t h e n e xt
t h e re f or e ,
sy l l ab l e o n t h e
to pos i t
e p e n t he s i s
in
th i s c a s e .
Th i rd,
fe a sib l e
t h e b i sy l l a b l e
in
the
f ramework
E l i a s s o n's a n a l y s i s ,
bi sy l l a b l e s d o
t i ons ,
i .e . ,
Ac c e n t 2
hand ,
is
ru l e ,
are
f ew.
w i th
r e c e i ve A c c e n t 2 .
mark t o o
here .
ma ny c a s e s .
t h e mo n o sy l l a b l e
A ccord i ng
to
t h a t mo n omorph em i c
Thu s ,
e xce p-
u nd e rgo t h e
I n t h e framework h e r e ,
on the other
b i sy l l ab l e s
s e t,
are
initial
t h e 400
d i acr i t i c to
In t h e
i s not
t h a t do
2 be c au s e they have
a
s o l ut i on
t h e Acc e nt 2 ru l e .
mo n omor ph e m i c
c omp l eme n t o f t h e
be marked
pro p o s e d
s ome h ow k n own
n o t undergo
r eceiv e Acc e n t
fore,
it
di acri t ic
mo n omor ph em i c b i sy l l ab l e s
the s e
i s the
p l us
s t r e s s.
e xce p t i o n s,
i nd i ca t e t h a t
a n a l ys i s
p r e d i ct e d
here ,
the
Thu s ,
it
t h a t mus t
they shou l d not
d i a c r i ti c mus t
F o r the re a s on s o ut l i n e d a bove,
p l us
to
e p e n t he s i s s o l u t i o n
there-
is a d o p t e d
here.
The s e cond
Ac c e nt 1
(21)
is
case o f
pr e s e n t e d
in
l ef t s t r e s s
( 21 )
edge words
( f r om E l e r t 1972 ) .
B i sy l l ab l e s e nd i n g i n
-e l s k
e nge l sk ' E ng l i s h '
-e l s t
me d e l s t ' by me a n s o f '
- ens
f u f f e n s 'mis c h i e f'
-ersk
baje r s k ' Bava r i a n '
-e r s t
0vers t
'u p p e rmo s t '
-ert
s t a ndert 'p e n n a n t '
- 170 -
t h a t r e c e ive
Wh a t
i s s tr i k i ng
abo u t
the s e
cases
in
( 20 ) .
mo n o sy l l ab l e s
in
the
s i m i l a r l y to
l yze d as
the
w i th e p e n t he s i s
t age o f
that
Tha t
c a n b e e x t e nd e d t o c ov e r t h e s e
they
there i s
an
r e l e v a n t e x amp l e s a r e
A n o t h e r a dva n-
.
o n the
cases .
t h u s,
is
I n t he b i sy l t h e s e words
o t h e r h a nd ,
i nd i c a t e
,
i s mor e
h oweve r ,
c omp l i -
i n t e ra c t i o n w i t h mor p h o l ogy o n t h e
l i sted
i s m o r e c omp l i c a t e d
in
here.
The
( 22 ) .
Mo n o sy l l ab l e +
- e r ( p r e s en t t e n s e )
' buy s '
kope r
- e r (p l ur a l + um l a u t ) s t ad e r ' t own s ' ( s t ad ' t own ' )
- e n ( d e f i n i t e s u f f i x, a l so - e t ) a n d e n
' t h e d u c k'
-r e (compa r a t i ve ) hogr e ' h i gh e r'
'typ i c a l '
typ i sk
-isk ( a dj. s u f f ix )
Th e pre s e n t
s u r f ace ,
t e n s e marke r ,
may be p o s it e d a s an
s e n t a t i on .
Thu s ,
p r e s ent
s ur f a c e
e nd
in a
a fter
f orm ,
in a
/ r/
i s a dd e d,
i s a s s i g ned ,
t h e s t em e nd s
i n s ert e d ,
wh i c h
in
is
- e r,
or -r on t h e
t h e u n d e r l y i ng r e pre-
mon o syl l ab i c s t ems rema i n mono s y l l ab i c wh e n
t e n s e marker
Whe n a cce n t
that
t h ey may b e a n a-
s h o u l d n o t r e ce i ve A c c e n t 2 .
o n e h a n d a n d s i nc e e p e n t h e s is
If
t h e y behave
would h av e t o b e mark e d w i t h a d i a cr i t i c t o
ca t e d s ince
the
i s,
a s s i g nme n t
Th e t h i rd c a s e o f exc e p t i o n s
( 22 )
that
u n d e r l y i ng re p r e s e n t a t i o n,
f o l l ow i n g a c c e n t
l a b l e p l u s s y nco p e s o l u t i o n ,
that
is
t h e mo n o sy l l ab l e p l u s e p e n t h e s i s s o l u t i on,
it
as we l l
cas e s
v owe l
V e r b s t e m s t h a t end
,
however,
a s s ig nme n t ,
,
is
n o n sy l l ab i c .
then an
t o produ c e the
/ko p / + /r/ be c ome s kope r
e .g.,
t h e s ur f a c e a s we l l
it
th e s e words t h e n r e c e i ve A c c e nt 1 .
c on s o n a n t
a c c e nt
s i n ce
/e /
is
c orre c t
'buy s ' .
S t ems
o t h e r t h a n / a/ r ema i n mo n o sy l l ab l e s o n
e . g.,
i n -a,
/bo/
+
/r/
b e c ome s bor ' l i ve s ' .
o n t h e o t h e r h a nd,
- 17 1 -
r e c e i ve A c c e n t
2
be c a u s e
a s s i gn e d ,
the i r
1970 ) .
a s s i gnme n t .
um l a u t ,
c a s e s,
Th e
mark e r - e r
c a s e s wh ere t h e r e
L i nd a u
are
Words
pos i t ed
i s a l s o a n um l a u t
i n t he
e p e nthe s i s
w i th
re c e i ve
' s p ea k s . '
be
Ag a i n,
may a l s o
the
Acc e nt
2,
a p p l i es
-er
p l ur a l ,
e .g. ,
f i l me r
und e r l y i ng
from th e surface
f orms
variation
word
a f t er
in
p l ur a l
in
( cf .
a c c e nt
wi thout
' f i l ms . '
f or t h e -er p l ur a l
structure
a s /r/
but
t h e u n d e r l y i n g r e pre s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
two
is
accent
wh e n
b i sy l l a b i c
/ t a l a / + / r / be c ome s t a l ar
e .g. ,
Th e p l u r a l
those
s t ems
an
I n the s e
is
jerI .
a r e r e c overab l e
the
pr e s e n c e o r
a bs e n c e o f a n a c c omp a ny i ng um l a u t .
The defin i t e
et ,
-t ,
-n a ,
may be
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n.
n umb e r
s uff i x,
pos i t ed
s urface
as
an
forms
/n/
in
A f t e r a c c e n t a s s i g nme n t ,
( - n vs - n a,
a p p l ies
the s i s
with
- t vs
a f t er
pre s e n t t e n s e ma rk e r ,
-n )
a nd g e nder
a c c e nt
it
(- n
a s s i g nme n t
o f -e n.
-n , ­
t h e u n d e r l y i ng
is
i nf l e c t e d
vs
a nd,
o c c u r s wh e n t h e s t em e nd s
f or
E p e n­
-t ) .
a s w i t h t he
in a
con s o ­
nant .
Whe n
cases
in
the / n/
e p e nt he s i s
( 20 ) .
i s the
/sed l /
'b i l l '
the
t h e de f i n i t e f o rm o f t h e
i n s e r t i o n d e p e nd s o n wh e t h e r
s i ng u l a r o r p l ura l
's a i l ' b e c ome s
in
to
the d i re c t i on o f
/s e g l /
l arna
app l i es
s eg l e n
in
b e c ome s se d e l n
d ef i n i t e
-en suff i x .
the
i n the
p l ur al ) .
e p e n t h e s i s p l a c e s t h e s o n or a n t
F o r examp l e.
de f i n i t e
p l ur a l
d e f i n i te s i ngu l ar
In
both
c a ses,
i n t h e n e x t s y l l ab l e ,
but
( s e d­
h owever,
r e l i ev­
i ng t h e s o nor i ty c l a s h.
The
c omp a r a t i ve
e p e n t h e s i s s i nc e
i s -re ,
e.g. ,
-re
th i s w i l l
/h o g /
+
/r/
c a n n ot
be
produce - e r,
pos i ted
a nd t h e
bec ome s h o qre
- 172 -
as
/ r/ w i th
s ur f a c e
f orm
'h i gh e r' a nd n o t
*hoge r .
Th i s ca s e
is
a n o t h e r e xamp l e o f
e p e n t h e s i s ru l e wh i ch
i ns e r t s t h e vowe l
t h e va r i a t i o n o f
the
t o the
the
r i gh t
of
s o n o r i ty v i o l a t i o n .
F i na l l y ,
the
s u f f i x - i sk may b e p o s i t e d a s /sk/
u n d e r l y i ng r e pr e s e nt a t i o n .
E p e n t he s i s
a s s i g nme n t b u t
i ns er t e d
an / i/
is
i ns e r t i o n o f /e/ v e r s u s / i /
b e f or e s o n o ra n t s,
mo t i va t e d
it
than
a
wh e n / sk/
co n t i n u a n t,
f o l l ows
e .g . ,
a n / e/ .
/e/
nonsonorant s .
f or s o n o r i ty
a f t e r acce n t
i n s t e ad o f
p r e d i ct a b l e :
/ i / be f ore
i n t h i s case
occurs
is
a p p l ie s
:�
is
wh i ch
/ t y p+ s k/
is
Th e
i ns e r t e d
Epenthe s i s
re a s o n s a s
a s t op,
i n the
we l l ,
is
s i nce
l e s s s o n or a n t
b ecome s
typ i s k
but
/ g l om+sk/ b ecome s g l omsk ' f org e t f u l .'
c e r t a i n word s
I n s umm a ry,
wit h a
l e ft
t h e s ur f ace may b e a n a l yz e d
as
s t age
t h e s t r e s s e dg e
of
d e r i va t i o n
mo n o sy l l ab l e s ,
e d g e a nd
t h e s e words w i l l
rece i ve Acce n t
e p e n t he s i s ru l e ,
vowe l ,
3.0 Der i v i ng t h e
s ect i o n,
co n t our o f
acce n t
t ona l
it
a r i gh t s tr e s s
A f t e r t h e acce n t
is
d e r i v e d,
an
i ns e r t s a
f o rm .
i s d emo n s t ra t e d
that
d e r i ve d w i t h out
the
p i t ch acc e n t
acce n t a s s i g nme n t
The a n a l y s i s p r oc e e d s w i t h i n t h e a u t o s e gme n t a l
and
has
two
t i er mu s t b e d e t erm i n e d.
mus t b e p r o p o s e d wh i ch
t o nal
As
c o n t our
( G o l dsm i t h 1976)
t ona l
be a s s i gned
on
at the
i s a s s i gned .
t o t h e bisy l l a b i c s ur f a c e
a word ca n b e
i n f o rma t i o n .
framework
1.
mon o sy l l a b i c
t r i gg e r e d by s o n or i ty v i o l a t i o n s ,
g i v i ng r i s e
In th i s
wh e n
b e i ng
s t re s s edge
S eco nd,
a s s oc i a t e s t h e
tier t o t h e i r t o n e b e a r i ng u n i t s.
- 173 -
p ar t s.
F i rs t ,
the
a ma p p i ng ru l e
t on e s o n
t h e acce n t
3 . 1 Th e dat a
Th e
phono l o g i c a l
an a l y s i s
ph one t i c a n a l y s i s
of
A l t h ough Bru c e' s
un c on t rovers i a l
are
both
A c c en t
The r e
bl e
2,
1,
Th e d i f f e r e n c e
t h e p e ak
th e p i t c h p e ak
fa l l
p i t ch pe ak
by
c omm.) ,
is
data
i s not
h e p r ov i d e s exp l i -
to
l i es
is
the
t h e s t r e s s e d sy l l a b l e .
For
in
two
the
low p i t c h
a c c en t s
pr e s t r e s s s y l l ab l e .
t h e s t re s s e d sy l l a-
f or A c c en t
1.
For A c c en t
i n th e s tr e s s ed sy l l a b l e .
a nd
t h e p o s t s t r e s s sy l l a b l e .
A c c en t 1 a nd A c c e n t 2
( 1 977) .
A c c en t 1 a nd A c c en t 2
the
f a l l s w i t hin t h e s t r e s s e d sy l l ab l e,
t i nu e s on t o
Bru c e
A c c ord i ng t o Bru c e
i n p i t ch s o t hat
l ies
in
a pit c h p e ak n e a r t h e s t r e s s e d
b e t we e n
r e l a t i ve
c hara c t e r i zed by
the
pe rs.
i s ba s e d on t h e
of t h e
f or p i t c h g e n e ra t i on.
i s an abru p t
is
i n t e r pr e t a t i on
( Eng s t rand ,
chara c t e r i zed
t i m i ng o f
here
Swed i s h
a l s o Bru c e & G � rd i ng 1978) ,
c f.
sy l l ab l e.
S t o ckho l m
( 1977)
c i t d a t a and r u l e s
( 1977 ,
p r e s en t e d
the
l ow
The
p i t ch
p i t c h c o n-
The d i f fe r en c e b e twe e n
i l l us t r a t ed
in
( 23) ,
wh e r e
� =
sy l l ab l e.
A c c e nt 1
( 23)
Th e
a c c en t s
p i t c h p e ak wh i ch
i ng t o
Bru c e
2
A c c en t
o f t en o c c ur
is
i n c on j un c t i on
i n d e p end ent o f
( 1977) .
f ocus ,
i .e . ,
in
c o u r s e.
t o Bru c e ' s da t a ,
ca l l s
p i t ch
Th i s extra p e ak s e rve s
or phr a s e as being
A c c ord i ng
the
a s e n t e n c e a c c en t )
o c c ur s
accent
the
a c c o rd-
t o mark a word
h i gh l i gh t e d
i n the d i s-
f o c u s p e ak
i n t h e word
- 174 -
w i th a s e c ond
( wh i ch h e
o n t h e sy l l a b l e
f o l l owin g t h e
low t o n e
t h e r e fore ,
focus
ble .
the
p e ak is
pit c h a c c e n t .
fou n d o n t h e
For A c c e n t 2 non- c omp o u n d s,
fo l lowing t h e
2,
o f the
the
pos tst r e s s sy l l a b l e .
s e nte n c e
(24 ) .
in
is
a nd
wit h A c c e n t
focus
Th e
p e ak is i l l u-
(24 ) .
Ac c e n t 2
A c c e nt 2
0
( c om p o u nd)
�
�
(a
o
0
.
.
.
0)
According
to
GArd i ng
a c c e nt s are
Bru c e
1 979 ,
s t ab l e
(1977 ,
GArd i ng
cf .
c o n t ou r s ,
a l s o Bru c e & G Ardi ng
Lind b l ad
&
�
*
*
*
1 978,
f ou n d on t h e sy l l a b l e
I n c ompou n d s
pitch a c c e n t
A c c e nt 1
a
pos t s t r e s s sy l l a-
a c c e n t i s t i e d t o t h e s e cond a ry s t r e s s .
r e l a tionship be t we e n
strated
it
For A c c e n t 1,
whi l e t h e
1973 ) ,
the wor d
s e n t e n c e a cc e n t is
in flue n c e d by s e n t e n c e i n t o n a t i o n.
3.2
Th e ton al
tier
Th e me l ody pro p o s e d h e r e for Swe dis h
include
the
the
f o c u s p e ak.
pit c h c urve
here.
Fir s t ,
p l aceme n t
are
c o n t ribu t io n s of
t his ana l ysis is
o f high a nd
phono l og i c a l
by s ema n t i c
The r e
l ow
i n f orma t ion.
give n/n ew a nd
within
the
f ocus p e ak
it
a
i.e . ,
bas e d on
i s d e t e rmi n e d by
can not be
Th a t
p r e di c t e d
f rom
is not t o s ay t h at t h e
is phon o l ogi c a l l y u ni n t ere s t i ng ,
t h e discu s sio n
- 175 -
word
f o c u s p eak i s a s sig n e d
c r i t e ria,
emph a s i s ma rking,
not dire c t l y r e l a t e d t o
f or s e p a r a t ing
pit c h a c c e n t a nd
t on e s
ph o no l ogi c a l in f orma t io n a l o n e .
focus peak
t wo re a so n s
doe s not
conce r n e d wit h p r e di c ting t h e
S i nce
( o r discour s e)
pit c h a c c e n t
only t h a t it
h er e o f
is
t h e phono-
l o gi c a l
pre di c t a bi l ity o f t h e pit c h s h a p e
by a c c o u n ting on l y
pre s e n t e d here
u s e Bru c e ' s
f or t h e pit c h a c c e nt me l o dy,
can be
( 1 977 )
o f a word .
S e cond,
t h e a na l y sis
c ompar e d to t h r e e ot h e r a na l y s e s t hat
d a t a bu t
a l so
do
not
ac c ou n t
for t h e
fo c u s peak.4
I
wi l l
b e gin
by
p r e s e n ting t hr e e r e c en t a na l y s e s o f
S t o c kh o l m Swe dis h pit c h a c c e n t
each of
t h em.
I
wi l l
whi c h ove r c ome s
Fir s t ,
S chmid
the
then
disadva n t a g e
( 1987 )
prop o s e s t h e
wh ere L=
(25 )
A c c ent 2
1
A c cord i ng to S c hm i d
( 1987 ) ,
be
tone .
s p e c i f ied
f i l l e d i n by
of
t his
for
i n t onatio n,
of
a n a l y sis
for A c c e n t
and
1
s t an t
f ea t ur e s
word
accent
o t h e r a na l ys e s .
f o l l ow i ng t o n a l
of
a n a l y sis is
the
Th e
t iers
f or
rest
of
pos t s t r e s s
as
a c c e n t me l o dy
Bru c e
of
is
b o u n d a ry t o n e s .
p i t ch shape
t h e p re s t r e s s h i gh
l ow for A c c e n t 2 a r e c o n ­
ra ther tha n
( 1977)
qu e s t i o n .
t h a t know l e d g e
be l onging t o t h e
p r o po s e s .
Th i s ,
of
The main p rob l em w i t h t h i s
a c c e n t a s sig nme n t d e t e rm i n e s
r e p re s e n t a t i on .
Tha t
is,
a
Accent
1
P i e rrehumb e r t and Be c kman
tie r s i n
the
f o c u s a nd
c h o s e n bas e d on wh e t h e r t h e word has
S e cond,
s t r e s s e d sy l la b l e mu s t
i t a s s ume s t hat
i n t o n a t ion
p rop er,
t h e a u t o s e gme n t a l
on l y the
c orre c t l y c h a r a c t e riz e s t h e
i s a n emp i ri c a l
t h e t ona l
the
l ow t o n e and H= h i gh t o n e .
s u c h as
t h e s t r e s s e d sy l l a b l e ,
cou r s e ,
arguing a gain s t
H
L
Whi l e
a nd
p r o p o s e a n a l t e r na t i ve a n a l y s i s
Swe dish p i t c h a c c e n t ,
A c c e nt
me l o dy
( 26 ) .
- 176 -
tona l
t i e r is
or A c c e nt
( f o r t h c om i ng )
2.
pro p o s e
(26 )
Accent 2
Accent 1
H
*
*
L
H
L
I n the i r
a n a l y s i s,
wh i c h
c l o s e r t o Br u c e's
is
both
Swe d i sh p i t c h a cce n t
d i f f e r e n c e,
wh i c h
a c c e nt s are
than
i s S chm i d's
over the
s t re s s e d sy l l a b l e. A c c ord i ng t o
h i gh ,
Bruc e ' s
B e c kma n ' s
l ow t o n e .
ana l ys i s .
The t i m i ng
1
f r om A c c e n t 2,
t one tha t
s t r e s s e d sy l l ab l e w i t h
is
ma p s t o t h e
t h e i r repre s e n t a t i o n,
Th i s a n a l y s i s
da t a .
( 1 977)
My
( f or t h c om i ng)
d i acri t i c
A c c e nt
a pre s t r e s s
l i ke
wh i c h ,
do
not
o f f er
t h a n k n ow l e d g e
Th i rd,
f or both
of
a cce n t s .
c o n c ern us h e r e
+
to
r e pr e s e n t a ti o n
S c hmid's
is
P i e rr e h umb e r t
the
use
( 1 987) a n a l y s i s,
ma p ping t ak e s
a ny c r i t e r i a
p l ac e .
a nd
of
the
r e qu i r e s
Th ey,
as
f or c h o o s i ng a t i er o t h e r
t h e word ' s a c c e n t .
Lore n t z
(27) A c c e n t 1
c orr e c t l y c hara c t e ri z e s
ob j e c t i o n
t h a t a t i e r b e ch o s e n b e f o r e
not
essence of
a nd A c c e n t 2 ma p s a h i gh t o t h e s t r e s s e d sy l l a b l e w i t h
a pos t s t r e s s
we l l ,
s e qu e nce,
the
d i s t i ng u i s h e s Ac c e n t
l ow t o ne t o t h e
L t one
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
r e pre s e n t e d by an as t e r i sk
1 ma ps a
a H
(1984)
Th e
( see
p r o pos e s
s e c o nd H,
the t ona l
t i er
in
( 27 )
t h e s e n t e nce a c c e nt ,
does
f oot n o t e 4).
Accent 2
*
H
It
a ppe a r s ,
k n own be f ore
L
H
in t h i s
ana l ys i s ,
that
ma p p i ng t ak e s p l a c e
- 177 -
the a c c e nt
s i nce
the
t i er
n e e d n o t be
is
t h e s ame
f o r b o t h a c c e nt s.
Lore ntz
(1984 )
Th i s
is
pl aces
not
a
dia crit i c
i n s t e a d. H e p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e
is
mark e d
A c c e nt 2
is
wit h
an
the
case ,
h owe v e r ,
o n the
s e gme n t a l
s t r e s s e d sy l l a b l e
t o s h i f t t h e me l o dy
a r r ow .
Th e
p u rp o s e
f or A cc e n t
of
i n A c c e n t 2 wo r d s s o t h a t
a l i gn s w i t h t h e s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e a nd t h e L
examp l e
t i er
1
a s t e r i sk a nd t h e s t r e s s e d sy l l ab l e for
i s mark e d w i t h an
pos t s tress
s i nce
sy l l a b l e.
to
g i ve
i s r e p e a t e d h e r e . Th e
the
so l id
the
a r r ow
f i rs t H
a l i gn s w i th the
Accent
l i ne
the
2 c o nt our .
His
i nd i c a t e s t h e f i r s t
a s s o ci a t i o n .
(28 )
Accent
A c c e nt 2
1
-;>
och nunnorna
*
r
o ch n umme
�
/
\
,
B e f ore
*
-..;> o ,ch n u n n o r n a
,
/
,
H L H
H L H
*
*
the
c o n t our
is
"
�/
/
,
�
�
,
�
H' L H
*
ma p p e d.
there f ore ,
the t ona l
t ie r i n
t h e word a c c e n t
mus t b e k n own .
I propos e ,
the
( 29)
i ns t e a d ,
a c c e n t me l o dy of
Ac c e nt 1
+
(29 )
t o r e p re s e nt
S t o ckho l m Swe d i s h.
A c c e nt 2
H L
Th i s t i e r
c o rre c t
i s a l so
c o n t o ur ,
d i f fe r e n t i a t e s
resu l t
uns pe c i f i ed
i .e . ,
A c c e nt
the
1
of t h e ma p p i ng r u l e,
i s s e n s i t i ve
t o metr i ca l
f o r p i t ch a c c e n t
p l a c eme n t
from
A c c e nt
pro p o s e d
c ho i c e .
of
the
2.
i s d e r i ve d a s a
in S e c t i o n
fa l l
The
3.3 ,
wh i c h
wh i c h
s t r u c t ur e r a t h e r t h a n d i re c t l y t o
a c c e n t a s s i g nme n t .
- 178 -
3 . 3 Th e mapp i ng ru l e
Th e
f i r s t ma p p i ng b e t we e n t h e
t i e r o c c urs
o n the
s t re s s e d vowe l
ca l l y,
the
word h a s a
t one
on
map s t o
wh e n t h e
o t h er t o n e o n t h e t o na l
at i o n l i n e s d o n o t
( 30 )
t i er map s
c ro s s .
stress edge .
s t re s s e d
vowe l
a n d t h e r i gh t t o n e
word h a s
s e gme n t a l
a r i gh t
S pe c i f i wh e n t h e
map s t o t h e
s tre s s e d g e .
i n s u c h a way t hat
Th e r u l e s are
s tat e d
in
Th e
assoc i-
( 30 ) .
Map p i ng Ru l e s
1a .
Map
H t o t h e s tre s s e d sy l l ab l e wh e n t h e word has a
l e f t s tre s s e dg e .
Map L to t h e s t r e s s e d sy l l ab l e wh e n t h e word
has a
r i gh t s t re s s e d g e .
lb.
2.
Map
t h e rema i n i ng t o n e s u c h t hat as s o c iat i o n
d o n o t cro s s .
Whe n t h e word has
l e ft
( 31 )
the
the
Wh i ch t o n e ma p s t o t h e
t h e word ' s
l e f t s tr e s s e d g e ,
s t re s s e d vowe l
t i er and
s t re s s e d vowe l .
d e p e nd s
l eft
tona l
to
r i gh t ,
a
l eft
b e g i n n i ng
s tre s s e d g e ,
the t on e s
l i ne s
map
w i t h t h e s tre s s e d sy l l ab l e ,
f r om
as
in
.
( 31 )
H L
H L
\ \
\'"
f l i cka
s
w
pr i n s e s sa
w
s
'V
V
Th e re s u l t
i ng t o
re s u l t
of
the
(1977).
I
\
t e l e f o n n umme r
w w s
s
w
"'V
of th i s ma p p i ng
Bru c e
H L
i s the A c c e nt
Th e ris e
f o c u s p e ak ,
"V
on
wh i ch
h ere.
- 179 -
nu
has
2 c o n t o ur ,
a c c ord-
i n t e l e f o nnummer
not
i s the
bee n re p r e s e n t e d
Wh e n t h e
from r i ght
in
word h a s
to
l ef t ,
a r i gh t
s t r e s s e dg e ,
the
t o n e s ma p
b e g i n n i ng w i t h t h e s t r e s s e d s y l l ab l e,
as
(32).
(32)
H L
H L
H L
in
I I
\
\
t e l efon
w w s
be t a l a
d
s
I
'W
Th e r e s u l t
of
i ng t o Bru c e
t h i s ma p p i ng
is
t h e A c ce n t
1
c o n t o u r,
a c c o rd-
( 1977 ) .
I n s umm a ry,
p i t ch a c c e nt
a
t ona l
me l o dy
c h o i c e ma p s
e dg e p a r ame t e r .
to
that
is
u n s p ec i f i e d
a word a ccord i ng to
Th i s p r o cedure
d e r i ve s
the
for
t he s t r e s s
c or r e c t a c c e nt
p a t t e r n o f Swe d i s h words .
4.0 S umma ry
I n th i s
o f a word
paper
(l
s u ch t h a t
i t wa s d e mo n s t r a t e d t h a t
o r 2) c a n b e
the
d e r i v e d f r om
a word w i t h a
l e ft
me t r i c a l
t h e me t r i c a l
a l s o b e u s e d t o d e r i ve
w i thout a
pr o p o s e d
a nd
here
�A c c e n t �
t h e word's
t h us
f rom t h e
c omb i n a t i on
re pre s e n t a t i o n s ,
st r e s s-t o n e
wh i c h
i n t era c t
r e l a t i o n s h i p s,
2." Th e int era c t i o n
is
to
l a be l e d
dr i ve n by
- 180 -
t h e word c o u l d
of
e a ch a c c e nt
a c c ent
a s s i gnme n t .
t h e fe a t ur e s
i nv e n t ory o f Swe d i sh d i s ­
St o ckho l m
t he
s t r u c t ure,
wa s fur t h er
e l i m i nat e s
i n s t e ad
is
It
c o n t our
t i n c t i ve fe a t ur e s a nd sh ows
Swe d i s h
1.
s t ru c t ur e o f
t o na l
pr i o r i k n ow l e dg e o f
Th e a n a l ys i s
EA c c e n t ]
the
ac cent
s t r e s s e d g e h a s A c c e n t 2 a nd a
word w i t h a r i gh t s t r e s s e d g e h a s A c c e nt
demo n s t r a t e d t h a t
cho i c e o f
that
p i tch
of
d e r i ve
"Ac c e nt
the not i on
a c c e nt
in
s t r e s s and t one
two d i f f e r e n t
1"
and
"A c c e nt
of t h e s t r e s s
e dg e ,
and
the ana l ys i s
there fore doe s not requ i re
k n ow l e d g e o f a word ' s a c c e nt
a s s i g nme n t
a p r i or i
i n o rd e r t o p ro c e e d .
* I
wou l d l i k e
t o t h a nk
O l l e E ng s t ra nd , B j o r n Hamma r b e rg ,
Anders
Ho l mb e r g ,
Fran c i s c o
L a c e rd a ,
a nd
Toma s
R i a d f or
r e a d i ng a nd
c omme n t i ng o n
a n e ar l i er
dra f t o f t h i s p a p e r .
A l l e r r o r s a r e my own . Th i s wo rk wa s s u p p or t e d by a s ch o l a r ­
sh i p f r om t h e Swe d i s h I n s t i t u t e .
Fo o t n o t e s
1 . Jensen
( 1 980 a ) a s s i g n s
p i t ch t o
Swe d i s h words b a s e d o n
t h e s t r e s s p a t t e r n ( p r e s e n c e o r a bs e n c e o f s e c o n d a ry s t re s s )
o f the
word a nd
a r gu e s t h a t
A c c e n t 1 a nd A c c e n t 2 a r e d e ­
r i ve d n o t i o n s i n Swe d i sh ph o n o l o gy .
2 . C f . J e n s e n ( 1 980b ) a nd S chm i d
( 1 987 )
p o s a l s o f f o o t c o n s t r u c t i o n i n Swe d i s h .
3.
Th i s wa s p o i n t e d o u t by
f or
t wo o t h e r p r o ­
I r e n e V o ge l .
4.
Lore n t z
( 1 98 4 )
i n c l ud e s
the
sentence ac cent H i n h i s
t o na l t i e r , but h e d o e s n o t
a c t u a l l y a c c ou n t
f or i t s beha­
v i or . For e xamp l e , h i s a na l y s i s wou l d n o t p l a c e t h e s e n t e n c e
a c c e n t c orr e c t l y i n a
l o ng c om p o u n d
w i t h s e v e r a l sy l l a b l e s
be t we e n t h e
p r i ma ry a nd s e c o nd a ry s t r e s s . Thu s , h i s t i e r i s
t r e a t e d h e r e a s a word a c c e n t t i e r o n l y .
Re f e r e n c e s
B a i l e y , L . M. 1988 .
Swe d i s h . L i ngu a 75 ,
A n o n- l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f
1 0 3-12 4 .
B o o i j , G . 1983 . P r i n c i p l e s a nd p a r ame t e r s
l ogy . L i ngu i s t i c s 2 1 , 2 49- 280 .
Bru c e . G . 1 977 . Swe d i sh Word A c c e n t s
t i ve . Lund : G l e e ru p .
p i t ch a c c e n t
in
i n p r o s o d i c pho n o ­
i n S e nt e n c e Pe rspe c ­
Bru c e , G . a nd E . G & rd i ng . 1978 . A p r o s od i c t y p o l o gy f or
Swe d i sh d i a l e c t s . Nord i c P r o s o dy , e d . by E . G & rd i ng , G .
Bru c e , R . B a n n e r t , 2 1 9- 2 28 . D e p t o f L i ng u i s t i c s : Lund U n i ­
ve r s i ty .
E l e r t , C . - C . 1972 . To n a l i ty i n Swe d i s h : Ru l e s a nd a l i s t o f
m i n i ma l p a i r s . S t ud i e s f or E i n a r H a uge n , e d . by E . S .
F i r ch ow , K . G r i ms t a d , N . Ha s s e l mo , W . A . O ' Ne i l , 1 5 1 -17 3 .
Th e H a g u e : Mou t o n .
E l i a s s o n . S . 1 972 . U n s t ab l e vowe l s i n Swe d i sh : Syn c o p e ,
e p e n t h e s i s or b o t h ? S t ud i e s f o r E i n a r Hauge n , e d . by E .
- 18 1 -
S.
F i r c h ow , K . G r i ms t a d ,
Th e Hague : Mou t o n .
G o l d sm i t h ,
MIT .
G A rd i ng ,
G l e e ru p .
-----
J.
E.
1 977 .
----- 1 979 .
20 7- 21 5 .
Ha s s e l mo ,
Au t o s egme n t a l
1 976 .
1 96 7 .
N.
I nt e r n a l
W.
A.
O ' Ne i l ,
P h o n o l ogy .
J un c t ure
i n Swe d i s h .
Th e S c a nd i n a v i a n Word A c c e n t s .
Sentence
i nt onat i on
Ph .
i n Swe d i s h .
Lund :
1 74- 1 88 .
D.
D i ss . :
Lund :
G l e e ru p .
Pho n e t i c a .
36
.
G Ard i ng , E . a nd P . L i nd b l a d . 1 973 . C o ns t a n cy a nd var i a t i o n
i n Swe d i sh word a c c e n t p a t t e r n s . Work i ng P ape r s 7 , 3 6 - 1 1 0 .
Lund Un i ve r s i ty : P h o n e t i c s L a b or a t o ry .
H a u g e n , E . 1 96 7 . On t h e ru l e s o f Norwe g i a n t o n a l i ty .
u age 43 , 1 8 5 -20 2 .
Hay e s , B . 1 98 1 .
D i s s . MIT .
A Me t r i c a l
Th e o ry o f S t r e s s Ru l e s .
----- 1 982 . Ex t r ame t r i c a l i ty a nd Eng l i sh s t r e s s .
I ngu i ry 1 3 , 227-276 .
Jensen ,
Journa l
J . T . 1 980 a . S t r e s s a n d a c c e n t
o f L i ngu i s t i c s 3 , 25 - 5 6 .
L a ng­
Ph .
D.
L i ngu i s t i c
i n Swe d i sh .
Nord i c
----- 1 980 b . Th e me t r i c a l s t r u c t ur e o f Swe d i sh A c c e nt .
C a h i e r s L i ngu i s t i gu e s d ' O t t awa , e d . by J . T . J e n s e n , 27 1 282 .
U n i ve r s i ty o f O t t awa : D e p a r tme n t o f L i ng u i s t i c s .
L i b e rma n ,
D . Diss . :
M . 1 975 .
MIT .
Th e
I nt onat i o na l
Sys t em o f E ng l i sh .
L i b e rma n , M . a nd A . P r i n c e . 1 977 . O n s t r e s s
rhy t hm . L i ngu i s t i c I ngu i ry 8 , 24 9 -33 6 .
a nd
Ph .
l i ng u i s t i c
L i nd a u , M . 1970 . P r o s o d i c p r o b l ems i n a g e n e r a t i ve ph o n o l o gy
o f Swe d i s h . Work i ng P ape r s 2 , L u n d Un i ve r s i t y : Ph o n e t i c s
L a b or a t o ry .
L i n e l l , P . 1 972 . Rema rks o n Swe d i sh mor p h o l ogy .
Up p s a l a Un i v e r s i t y : De p a r tme n t o f L i ng u i s t i c s .
RUUL 1 .
Lor e nt z , O . 1 984 . S t r e s s a nd t o n e i n a n a c c e nt l a ng u a g e .
Nord i c P r o s o dy I I I , e d . by C - C . E l e r t , I . J oh a n s s o n , E .
S t r a ng e r t ,
1 6 5 - 1 78 . S t o ckho l m : A l mqv i s t & W i ks e l l .
N e s p o r , M . a nd I .
r e c h t : Fo r i s .
Voge l .
P i e r r e humb e r t , J . 1 980 .
E ng l i sh I n t o n a t i o n . Ph .
1 986 .
P r o s o d i c Ph o n o l ogy .
Do rd­
The Ph o n o l ogy a nd Ph o n e t i c s o f
D . D i ss . : MIT .
- 1 82 -
P i e r r e h umb e r t , J . a n d M .
of Tone i n Japane s e .
P r i n c e , A . 198 3 .
1 4 , 1 9- 1 0 0 .
B e c kma n .
f or t h c om i n g .
Re l a t i ng t o t h e gr i d .
Th e S t ru c t ur e
L i ngu i s t i c
R i s c h e l , J . 196 3 . Mor p h em i c t o n e a nd word t o n e
Norwe g i a n . Ph o n e t i c a 10 , 1 5 4- 1 6 4 .
S chm i d , K . B . 1987 . N o n- l i n e a r Appr o a c h e s
P r o s o dy . Ph . D . D i s s . Br own Un i ve r s i t y .
I nqu i ry
i n Eas t e r n
t o Swe d i sh Word
ohma n , S . 196 6 . G e n e r a t i va r e g l e r f o r d e t s v e n s k a v e r b e t s
f o n o l og i o c h pr o s od i . F o rh a nd l i nga r v i d S amma n k oms t f or a t t
Dry f t a Fr �qor Ror a n d e Sve n s k a n s B e skr i vn i ng I I I , e d . by S .
A l l e n , 71- 8 7 . G o t e bo r g Un i ve r s i t y : I n s t i t u t i o n e n f or n or ­
d i sk a s pr �k , I n s t i t u t i o n e n f or e ng l e sk a s pr�k e t .
- 183 -