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Document 1972622

APPENDIX
G
Water Quality Criteria
CONTENTS
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................798 EPA’s Water Quality Criteria and Standards Plan — Priorities for the Future............................798 Compilation of Recommended Water Quality Criteria and EPA’s Process for Deriving New and Revised Criteria ...............................................................................799 Ammonia ........................................................................................................................................813 National Ammonia Water Quality Criteria ..........................................................................815 Bacteria...........................................................................................................................................816 Development of Bathing Beach Bacteriological Criteria ....................................................816 Bacteria Criteria for Water Contact Recreation...................................................................820 Chloride, Conductivity, and Total Dissolved Solids .....................................................................822 Human Health Criteria for Dissolved Solids.......................................................................822 Aquatic Life Criteria for Dissolved Solids ..........................................................................823 Chromium.......................................................................................................................................823 Aquatic Life Effects of Cr3+ .................................................................................................823 National Freshwater Aquatic Life Criteria for Cr3+ .............................................................824 Human Health Criteria for Chromium.................................................................................824 Copper ............................................................................................................................................824 Effects of Copper on Aquatic Life.......................................................................................824 National Aquatic Life Criteria for Copper...........................................................................825 Human Health Criteria for Copper ......................................................................................825 Hardness .........................................................................................................................................825 Hydrocarbons .................................................................................................................................826 Lead ................................................................................................................................................827 Aquatic Life Summary for Lead..........................................................................................827 National Aquatic Life Criteria for Lead ..............................................................................828 Human Health Criteria for Lead ..........................................................................................828 Nitrate and Nitrite ..........................................................................................................................828 Human Health Nitrate and Nitrite Criteria ..........................................................................829 Nitrate and Nitrite Aquatic Life Criteria .............................................................................829 Phosphate .......................................................................................................................................830 Aquatic Life Summary for Phosphate .................................................................................831 pH ...................................................................................................................................................832 pH Aquatic Life Effects and Criteria...................................................................................833 797
798
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
Suspended Solids and Turbidity ....................................................................................................834
Water Quality Criteria for Suspended Solids and Turbidity ...............................................835
Zinc.................................................................................................................................................835
Aquatic Life Criteria for Zinc..............................................................................................835
Human Health Criteria for Zinc...........................................................................................836
Sediment Guidelines ......................................................................................................................836
References ......................................................................................................................................839
INTRODUCTION
One of the most confusing aspects of conducting a receiving water study is attempting to
compare acquired water quality data to appropriate standards and criteria. In many cases, available
data have been obtained haphazardly without speciﬁc project objectives in mind. Inappropriate
constituents also may have been measured, based more on convenience (and expense) than useful
ness. The user is then left with trying to understand if a problem exists and determining the extent
of the problem. This book has emphasized the need for careful experimental design (with clear
objectives) and the need for a multidisciplinary approach in receiving water studies.
In all cases, the user will still need to compare acquired data with some type of objective. As
stated in Chapter 8, however, care must be taken when comparing measured values with available
criteria. In addition, many of the most commonly measured constituents (such as turbidity, Secchi
disk transparency, and speciﬁc conductivity) are not directly comparable to water quality criteria,
and are best evaluated through long experience at a monitoring location and through comparisons
with observations obtained at reference sites. Finally, Chapter 8 (and elsewhere) lists reasons why
water quality criteria are not directly applicable to stormwater-related conditions. Nevertheless,
water quality criteria are important tools that cannot be overlooked. If measured conditions exceed
established criteria, then problems may occur, requiring that the conditions be investigated further.
However, the most serious problem associated with water quality criteria applied to stormwater is
the likelihood of false negative conclusions, based on the observation of no, or few, exceedances.
As noted elsewhere, problems caused by stormwater in receiving waters may more likely be
associated with habitat disturbances and contaminated sediment than by elevated water quality
concentrations. In addition, few receiving water studies include broad representations of toxicants
and conventional pollutants, especially in sufﬁcient numbers and sampling frequencies, to make
statistically valid comparisons with the criteria.
The following sections of this appendix summarize U.S. Environmental Protection Agency water
quality standards and criteria for selected constituents of concern when conducting a receiving water
investigation. These criteria and standards are subject to periodic change, and it is important to
review the most current listing from the EPA at: http://www.epa.gov/OST/standards. Much of the
background discussion in this Appendix is summarized directly from EPA (1986b).
EPA’S WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND STANDARDS PLAN
— PRIORITIES FOR THE FUTURE
In September 1998, the EPA announced a plan (URL: http://www.epa.gov/OST/standards/
planfs.html) for working together with the states and tribes to enhance and improve the water quality
criteria and standards program across the country. This plan describes new criteria and standards
program initiatives that EPA and the states and tribes will take over the next decade. The development
and implementation of criteria and standards will provide a basis for enhancements to the total
maximum daily load (TMDL) program, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permitting, nonpoint source control, wetlands protection, and other water resources management efforts.
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
799
The EPA’s Ofﬁce of Water will emphasize and focus on the following priority areas for the
Criteria and Standards Program over the next decade:
• Developing nutrient criteria and assessment methods to better protect aquatic life and human health
• Developing criteria for microbial pathogens to better protect human health during water recreation
• Completing the development of biocriteria as an improved basis for aquatic life protection
• Maintaining and strengthening the existing ambient water quality criteria for water and sediments
• Evaluating possible criteria initiatives for excessive sedimentation, ﬂow alterations, and wildlife
• Developing improved water quality modeling tools to better translate water quality standards into
implementable control strategies
• Ensuring implementation of these new initiatives and improvements by the states and tribes in
partnership with EPA
Over the past two decades, state and tribal water quality standards and water quality-based
management approaches have relied upon aquatic life use designations and protective criteria
based primarily upon narrative, chemical-speciﬁc, and whole-efﬂuent toxicity methodologies.
Using these approaches, much progress has been made. However, not all of the nation’s waters
have achieved the Clean Water Act goal of “ﬁshable and swimmable,” and signiﬁcant water
pollution problems still exist. The EPA concludes that there is an essential need for improved
water quality standards. Adding nutrient criteria and biological criteria to the water quality criteria
and standards program ensures further improvements in maintaining and restoring aquatic life.
Improved human health criteria will better protect against bioaccumulative pollutants, and new
microbial pathogen controls will better protect human health (especially that of children) during
water-related recreation. Better tools are also needed for controlling excessive sedimentation, ﬂow
alterations, and for protecting wildlife.
COMPILATION OF RECOMMENDED WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND
EPA’S PROCESS FOR DERIVING NEW AND REVISED CRITERIA
Section 304(a) of the Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C. 1314(a)(1), requires the EPA to publish and
periodically update ambient water quality criteria. These criteria are to “… accurately reﬂect the
latest scientiﬁc knowledge … on the kind and extent of all identiﬁable effects on health and welfare
including, but not limited to, plankton, ﬁsh, shellﬁsh, wildlife, plant life … which may be expected
from the presence of pollutants in any body of water. …” Water quality criteria developed under
section 304(a) are based solely on data and scientiﬁc judgments on the relationship between
pollutant concentrations and environmental and human health effects. These recommended criteria
provide guidance for states and tribes in adopting water quality standards under section 303(c) of
the CWA. The compilation was published in the Federal Register and can be accessed on the Ofﬁce
of Science and Technologies Home-page: http://www.epa.gov/OST/
The following tables are from the April 1999 compilation report (EPA 822-Z-99-001). In
these tables, CMC refers to the “criterion maximum concentration” with an exposure period
of 1 hour (generally corresponding to the earlier “acute” criterion), and CCC refers to the
“criterion continuous concentration” with an averaging period of 4 days (generally correspond
ing to the earlier “chronic” criterion). “Freshwater” and “saltwater” refer to aquatic life uses
in these waters.
Following these tables are discussions for many constituents of concern when conducting
a receiving water investigation. These discussions, which brieﬂy outline speciﬁc problems
associated with different concentrations of the pollutants, are mostly from the 1986 EPA Water
Quality Criteria report. Some of the criteria have been modiﬁed since that time, speciﬁcally
for ammonia and bacteria, and those discussions have been modiﬁed to reﬂect these newer
guidelines.
800
U.S. Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Priority Toxic Pollutants
Freshwater
Priority Pollutant
Saltwater
CAS
Number
CMC
(µg/L)
CCC
(µg/L)
CMC
(µg/L)
CCC
(µg/L)
Antimony
Arsenic
7440360
7440382
340A,D,K
150A,D,K
69A,D,bb
36A,D,bb
3
4
5a
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium III
7440417
7440439
16065831
4.3D,E,K
570D,E,K
2.2D,E,K
74D,E,K
42D,bb
9.3D,bb
5b
6
7
8
9
10
Chromium VI
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Selenium
18540299
7440508
7439921
7439976
7440020
7782492
16D,K
13D,E,K,cc
65D,E,bb,gg
1.4D,K,hh
470D,E,K
11D,K
9.0D,E,K,cc
2.5D,E,bb,gg
0.77D,K,hh
52D,E,K
5.0T
1,100D,bb
4.8D,cc,ff
210D,bb
1.8D,ee,hh
74D,bb
290D,bb,dd
11
12
13
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
7440224
7440280
7440666
3.4D,E,G
14
Cyanide
57125
15
Asbestos
1332214
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
2,3,7,8-TCDD dioxin
Acrolein
Acrylonitrile
Benzene
Bromoform
Carbon tetrachloride
Chlorobenzene
Chlorodibromomethane
Chloroethane
2-Chloroethylvinyl ether
1746016
107028
107131
71432
75252
56235
108907
124481
75003
110758
L,R,T
50D,bb
3.1D,cc,ff
8.1D,bb
0.94D,ee,hh
8.2D,bb
71D,bb,dd
14B,Z
0.018C,M,S
4300B
0.14C,M,S J,Z
J
J,Z
J
J,Z Total
J
J,Z Total
J
1300U
J
J
0.050B
610B
170Z
0.051B
4,600B
11,000
1.7B
9100U
6.3B
69,000U
700B,Z
7 million
ﬁbers/LI
1.3E-8C
320
0.059B,C
1.2B,C
4.3B,C
0.25B,C
680B,Z
0.41B,C
220,000B,H
1.9D,G
120D,E,K
120D,E,K
22K,Q
5.2K,Q
90D,bb
81D,bb
1Q,bb
1Q,bb
1.4E-8C
780
0.66B,C
71B,C
360B,C
4.4B,C
21,000B,H
34B,C
Federal Register
Cite/Source
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EPA820/B-96-001
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1
2
Human Health
For Consumption of:
Water +
Organism
Organism
Only
(µg/L)
(µg/L)
67663
75274
75343
107062
75354
78875
542756
100414
74839
74873
75092
79345
127184
108883
156605
71556
79005
79016
75014
95578
120832
105679
534521
51285
88755
100027
59507
87865
108952
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
Acenaphthene
Acenaphthylene
Anthracene
Benzidine
Benzoaanthracene
Benzoapyrene
Benzobﬂuoranthene
Benzoghiperylene
88062
83329
208968
120127
92875
56553
50328
205992
191242
19F,K
15F,K
13bb
7.9bb
5.7B,C
0.56B,C
470B,C
46B,C
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0.38B,C
0.057B,C
0.52B,C
10B
3100B,Z
48B
99B,C
3.2B,C
39B,C
1700B
29,000B
4000B
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J
J
4.7B,C
0.17B,C
0.8C
6800B,Z
700B,Z
1600B,C
11B,C
8.85C
200,000B
140,000B
J,Z
J
0.60B,C
2.7C
2.0C
120B,U
93B,U
540B,U
13.4
70B
42B,C
81C
525C
400B,U
790B,U
2300B,U
765
14,000B
U
U
0.28B,C
21,000B,U
8.2B,C,H
2.1B,C,U
1200B,U
4,600,000B,H,U
6.5B,C
2700B,U
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9600B
0.00012B,C
0.0044B,C
0.0044B,C
0.0044B,C
110,000B
0.00054B,C
0.049B,C
0.049B,C
0.049B,C
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801
Chloroform
Dichlorobromomethane
1,1-Dichloroethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,1-Dichloroethylene
1,2-Dichloropropane
1,3-Dichloropropene
Ethylbenzene
Methyl bromide
Methyl chloride
Methylene chloride
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
Tetrachloroethylene
Toluene
1,2-trans-Dichloroethylene
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
Trichloroethane
Vinyl chloride
2-Chlorophenol
2,4-Dichlorophenol
2,4-Dimethylphenol
2-Methyl-4,6-dinitrophenol
2,4-Dinitrophenol
2-Nitrophenol
4-Nitrophenol
3-Methyl-4-Chlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
802
U.S. Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Priority Toxic Pollutants (continued)
Freshwater
Priority Pollutant
CAS
Number
CMC
(µg/L)
CCC
(µg/L)
Saltwater
CMC
(µg/L)
CCC
(µg/L)
Human Health
For Consumption of:
Water +
Organism
Organism
Only
(µg/L)
(µg/L)
Federal Register
Cite/Source
Benzokﬂuoranthene
Bis-2-chloroethoxymethane
Bis-2-chloroethylether
Bis-2-chloroisopropylether
207089
111911
111444
39638329
0.0044B,C
0.049B,C
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0.031B,C
1400B
1.4B,C
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Bis-2-ethylhexylphthalateX
4-Bromophenyl phenyl ether
Butylbenzyl phthalateW
2-Chloronaphthalene
4-Chlorophenyl phenyl ether
Chrysene
Dibenzoa,hanthracene
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
1,3-Dichlorobenzene
1,4-Dichlorobenzene
3,3′-Dichlorobenzidine
Diethyl phthalateW
Dimethyl phthalateW
Di-n-Butyl phthalateW
2,4-Dinitrotoluene
2,6-Dinitrotoluene
Di-n-octyl phthalate
1,2-Diphenylhydrazine
Fluoranthene
Fluorene
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorobutadiene
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
Hexachloroethane
Idenol1,2,3-cdpyrene
Isophorone
Naphthalene
117817
101553
85687
91587
7005723
218019
53703
95501
541731
106467
91941
84662
131113
84742
121142
606202
117840
122667
206440
86737
118741
87683
77474
67721
193395
78591
91203
1.8B,C
170,000B
5.9B,C
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3000B
1700B
5200B
4300B
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0.0044B,C
0.0044B,C
2700B,Z
400
400Z
0.04B,C
23,000B,C
313,000
2700B
0.11C
0.049B,C
0.049B,C
17,000B
2600
2600
0.077B,C
120,000B
2,900,000
12,000B
9.1C
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0.040B,C
300B
1300B
0.00075B,C
0.44B,C
240B,U,Z
1.9B,C
0.0044B,C
36B,C
0.54B,C
370B
14,000B
0.00077B,C
50B,C
17,000B,H,U
8.9B,C
0.049B,C
2600B,C
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STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
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65
66
67
Nitrobenzene
N-Nitrosodimethylamine
N-Nitrosodi-n-propylamine
N-Nitrosodiphenylamine
Phenanthrene
Pyrene
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Aldrin
α-BHC
β-BHC
γ-BHC (Lindane)
δ-BHC
Chlordane
98953
62759
621647
86306
85018
129000
120821
309002
319846
319857
58899
319868
57749
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
4,4′-DDT
4,4′-DDE
4,4′-DDD
Dieldrin
α-Endosulfan
β-Endosulfan
Endosulfan sulfate
Endrin
Endrin aldehyde
Heptachlor
Heptachlor epoxide
Polychlorinated biphenyls
50293
72559
72548
60571
959988
33213659
1031078
72208
7421934
76448
1024573
120
Toxaphene
8001352
3.0G
1.3G
0.95K
0.16G
17B
0.00069B,C
0.005B,C
5.0B,C
1900B,H,U
8.1B,C
1.4B,C
16B,C
960B
260Z
0.00013B,C
0.0039B,C
0.014B,C
0.019C
11,000B
940
0.00014B,C
0.013B,C
0.046B,C
0.063C
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2.4G
0.0043G,aa
0.09G
0.004G,aa
0.0021B,C
0.0022B,C
1.1G
0.001G,aa
0.13G
0.001G,aa
0.24K
0.22G,Y
0.22G,Y
0.056K,O
0.056K,O
0.056G,Y
0.71G
0.034G,Y
0.034G,Y
0.0019G,aa
0.0087G,Y
0.0087G,Y
0.086K
0.036K,O
0.037G
0.0023G,aa
0.52G
0.52G,V
0.0038G,aa
0.0038G,V,aa
0.014N,aa
0.053G
0.053G,V
0.0036G,aa
0.0036G,V,aa
0.03N,aa
0.00059B,C
0.00059B,C
0.00083B,C
0.00014B,C
110B
110B
110B
0.76B
0.76B
0.00021B,C
0.00010B,C
0.00059B,C
0.00059B,C
0.00084B,C
0.00014B,C
240B
240B
240B
0.81B,H
0.81B,H
0.00021B,C
0.00011B,C
0.73
0.0002aa
0.21
0.0002aa
0.00017B,C,P
0.00073B,C
0.00017B,C,P
0.00075B,C
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WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
A This recommended water quality criterion was derived from data for arsenic (III), but is applied here to total arsenic, which might imply that arsenic (III) and arsenic (V)
are equally toxic to aquatic life and that their toxicities are additive. In the arsenic criteria document (EPA 440/5-84-033, January 1985), Species Mean Acute Values are
given for both arsenic (III) and arsenic (V) for ﬁve species and the ratios of the SMAVs for each species range from 0.6 to 1.7. Chronic values are available for both
arsenic (III) and arsenic (V) for one species; for the fathead minnow, the chronic value for arsenic (V) is 0.29 times the chronic value for arsenic (III). No data are known
to be available concerning whether the toxicities of the forms of arsenic to aquatic organisms are additive.
B This criterion has been revised to reﬂect the Environmental Protection Agency’s q1* or RfD, as contained in the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) as of April
8, 1998. The ﬁsh tissue bioconcentration factor (BCF) from the 1980 Ambient Water Quality Criteria document was retained in each case.
C This criterion is based on carcinogenicity of 10–6 risk. Alternate risk levels may be obtained by moving the decimal point (e.g., for a risk level of 10–5, move the decimal
point in the recommended criterion one place to the right).
803
804
U.S. Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Priority Toxic Pollutants (continued)
D Freshwater and saltwater criteria for metals are expressed in terms of the dissolved metals in the water column. The recommended water quality criteria value was
calculated by using the previous 304(a) aquatic life criteria expressed in terms of total recoverable metal, and multiplying it by a conversion factor (CF). The term
“Conversion Factor” (CF) represents the recommended conversion factor for converting a metal criterion expressed as the total recoverable fraction in the water column
to a criterion expressed as the dissolved fraction in the water column. (Conversion Factors for saltwater CCCs are not currently available. Conversion factors derived
for saltwater CMCs have been used for both saltwater CMCs and CCCs). See “Ofﬁce of Water Policy and Technical Guidance on Interpretation and Implementation of
Aquatic Life Metals Criteria,” October 1, 1993, by Martha G. Prothro, Acting Assistant Administrator for Water, available from the Water Resource center, USEPA, 401
M St., SW, mail code RC4100, Washington, DC 20460; and 40CFR§131.36(b)(1). Conversion Factors applied in the table can be found in Appendix A to the PreambleConversion Factors for Dissolved Metals.
E The freshwater criterion for this metal is expressed as a function of hardness (mg/L) in the water column. The value given here corresponds to a hardness of 100 mg/L.
Criteria values for other hardness may be calculated from the following: CMC (dissolved) = exp{mA[ln(hardness)] + bA} (CF), or CCC (dissolved) = exp{mC[ln(hardness)]
+ bC} (CF) and the parameters speciﬁed in Appendix B to the Preamble- Parameters for Calculating Freshwater Dissolved Metals Criteria That Are Hardness-Dependent.
F Freshwater aquatic life values for pentachlorophenol are expressed as a function of pH, and are calculated as follows: CMC = exp(1.005(pH) – 4.869); CCC = exp(1.005(pH)
– 5.134). Values displayed in table correspond to a pH of 7.8.
G This Criterion is based on 304(a) aquatic life criterion issued in 1980, and was issued in one of the following documents: Aldrin/Dieldrin (EPA 440/5-80-019), Chlordane
(EPA 440/5-80-027), DDT (EPA 440/5-80-038), Endosulfan (EPA 440/5-80-046), Endrin (EPA 440/5-80-047), Heptachlor (EPA 440/5-80-019), Hexachlorocyclohexane
(EPA 440/5-80-054), Silver (EPA 440/5-80-071). The Minimum Data Requirements and derivation procedures were different in the 1980 Guidelines than in the 1985
Guidelines. For example, a “CMC” derived using 1980 Guidelines was derived to be used as an instantaneous maximum. If assessment is to be done using an average
period, the values given should be divided by 2 to obtain a value that is more comparable to a CMC derived using the 1985 Guidelines.
H No criterion for protection of human health from consumption of aquatic organisms excluding water was presented in the 1980 criteria document or in the 1986 Quality
Criteria for Water. Nevertheless, sufﬁcient information was presented in the 1980 document to allow the calculation of a criterion, even though the results of such a
calculation were not shown in the document.
I
This criterion for asbestos is the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) developed under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA).
K This recommended criterion is based on a 304(a) aquatic life criterion that was issued in the 1995 Updates: Water Quality Criteria Documents for the Protection of
Aquatic Life in Ambient Water, (EPA-820-B-96-001, September 1996). This value was derived using the GLI Guidelines (60FR15393-15399, March 23, 1995; 40CFR132
Appendix A); the difference between the 1985 Guidelines and the GLI Guidelines are explained on page iv of the 1995 Updates. None of the decisions concerning the
derivation of this criterion were affected by any considerations that are speciﬁc to the Great Lakes.
L The CMC = 1/[(f1/CMC1) + (f2/CMC2)] where f1 and f2 are the fractions of total selenium that are treated as selenite and selenate, respectively, and CMC1 and CMC2
are 185.9 µg/l and 12.83 µg/l, respectively.
M EPA is currently reassessing the criteria for arsenic. Upon completion of the reassessment the Agency will publish revised criteria as appropriate.
N PCBs are a class of chemicals which include Aroclors, 1242, 1254, 1221, 1232, 1248, 1260, and 1016, CAS numbers 53469219, 11097691, 11104282, 11141165,
12672296, 11096825 and 12674112 respectively. The aquatic life criteria apply to this set of PCBs.
O The derivation of the CCC for this pollutant did not consider exposure through the diet, which is probably important for aquatic life occupying upper trophic levels.
P This criterion applies to total pcbs, i.e., the sum of all congener or all isomer analyses.
Q This recommended water criterion is expressed as µg free cyanide (as CN)/L.
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
J EPA has not calculated human health criterion for this contaminant. However, permit authorities should address this contaminant in NPDES permit actions using the
State’s existing narrative criteria for toxics.
S This recommended water quality criterion refers to the inorganic form only.
T This recommended water quality criterion is expressed in terms of total recoverable metal in the water column. It is scientiﬁcally acceptable to use the conversion factor
of 0.922 that was used in the GLI to convert this to a value that is expressed in terms of dissolved metal.
U The organoleptic effect criterion is more stringent than the value for priority toxic pollutants.
V This value was derived from data for heptachlor and the criteria document provides insufﬁcient data to estimate the relative toxicities of heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide.
W Although EPA has not published a ﬁnal criteria document for this compound it is EPA’s understanding that sufﬁcient data exist to allow calculation of aquatic criteria. It
is anticipated that industry intends to publish in the peer reviewed literature draft aquatic life criteria generated in accordance with EPA Guidelines. EPA will review such
criteria for possible issuance as national WQC.
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
R This value was announced (61FR58444-58449, November 14, 1996) as a proposed GLI 303(c) aquatic life criterion. EPA is currently working on this criterion and so
this value might change substantially in the near future.
X There is a full set of aquatic life toxicity data that show that DEHP is not toxic to aquatic organisms at or below its solubility limit.
Y This value was derived from data for endosulfan and is most appropriately applied to the sum of alpha-endosulfan and beta-endosulfan.
Z A more stringent MCL has been issued by the EPA. Refer to drinking water regulations (40 CFR 141) or Safe Drinking Water Hotline (1-800-426-4791) for values.
aa This CCC is based on the Final Residue Value procedure in the 1985 Guidelines. Since the publication of the Great Lakes Aquatic Life Criteria Guidelines in 1995
(60FR15393-15399, March 23, 1995), the Agency no longer uses the Final Residue Value procedure for deriving CCCs for new or revised 304(a) aquatic life criteria.
bb This water quality criterion is based on a 304(a) aquatic life criterion that was derived using the 1985 Guidelines (Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses, PB85-227049, January 1985) and was issued in one of the following criteria documents: Arsenic
(EPA 440/5-84-033), Cadmium (EPA 440/5-84-032), Chromium (EPA 440/5-84-029), Copper (EPA 440/5-84-031), Cyanide (EPA 440/5-84-028), Lead (EPA 440/5-84
027), Nickel (EPA 440/5-86-004), Pentachlorophenol (EPA 440/5-86-009), Toxaphene (EPA 440/5-86-006), Zinc (EPA 440/5-87-003).
cc When the concentration of dissolved organic carbon is elevated, copper is substantially less toxic and use of Water-Effect Ratios might be appropriate.
dd The selenium criteria document (EPA 440/5-87-006, September 1987) provides that if selenium is as toxic to saltwater ﬁshes in the ﬁeld as it is to freshwater ﬁshes in
the ﬁeld, the status of the ﬁsh community should be monitored whenever the concentration of selenium exceeds 5.0 µg/L in salt water because the saltwater CCC does
not take into account uptake via the food chain.
ee This recommended water quality criterion was derived on page 43 of the mercury criteria document (EPA 440/5-84-026, January 1985). The saltwater CCC of 0.025
µg/L given on page 23 of the criteria document is based on Final Residue Value procedure in the 1985 Guidelines. Since the publication of the Great Lakes Aquatic
Life Criteria Guidelines in 1995 (60FR15393-15399, March 23, 1995), the Agency no longer uses the Final Residue Value procedure for deriving CCCs for new or revised
304(a) aquatic life criteria.
ff This recommended water quality criterion was derived in Ambient Water Quality Criteria Saltwater Copper Addendum (Draft, April 14, 1995) and was promulgated in
the Interim ﬁnal National Toxics Rule (60FR22228-222237, May 4, 1995).
gg EPA is actively working on this criterion and so this recommended water quality criterion may change substantially in the near future.
hh This recommended water quality criterion was derived from data for inorganic mercury (II), but is applied here to total mercury. If a substantial portion of the mercury
in the water column is methylmercury, this criterion will probably be under protective. In addition, even though inorganic mercury is converted to methylmercury and
methylmercury bioaccumulates to a great extent, this criterion does not account for uptake via the food chain because sufﬁcient data were not available when the criterion
was derived.
805
806
U.S. Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Nonpriority Pollutants
Freshwater
Nonpriority Pollutant
1
2
3
Alkalinity
Aluminum pH 6.5–9.0
Ammonia
—
7429905
7664417
Aesthetic qualities
Bacteria
Barium
Boron
Chloride
Chlorine
Chlorophenoxy herbicide 2,4,5,-TP
Chlorophenoxy herbicide 2,4-D
Chloropyrifos
Color
Demeton
Ether, Bis Chloromethyl
Gases, Total Dissolved
Guthion
Hardness
Hexachlorocyclo-hexane-Technical
Iron
Malathion
Manganese
Methoxychlor
Mirex
Nitrates
Nitrosamines
Dinitrophenols
Nitrosodibutylamine,N
Nitrosodiethylamine,N
Nitrosopyrrolidine,N
Oil and grease
Oxygen, dissolved
—
—
7440393
—
16887006
7782505
93721
94757
2921882
—
8065483
542881
—
86500
—
319868
7439896
121755
7439965
72435
2385855
14797558
—
25550587
924163
55185
930552
—
7782447
CMC
(µg/L)
CCC
(µg/L)
CMC
(µg/L)
CCC
(µg/L)
Human Health
For Consumption of:
Water +
Organism
Organism
Only
(µg/L)
(µg/L)
20000F
750G,I
87G,I,L
FRESHWATER CRITERIA ARE pH DEPENDENT — SEE DOCUMENTD
SALTWATER CRITERIA ARE pH AND TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENT
FOR PRIMARY RECREATION AND SHELLFISH USES — SEE DOCUMENT
1000A
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENT
860000G
230000G
C
19
11
13
7.5
10A
100A,C
0.083G
0.041G
0.011G
0.0056G
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENTF
0.1F
0.1F
0.00013E
0.00078E
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENTF
0.01F
0.01F
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENT
0.0123
0.0414
1000F
300A
0.1F
0.1F
50A
100A
0.03F
0.03F
100A,C
0.001F
0.001F
10,000A
0.0008
1.24
70
14,000
0.0064A
0.587A
0.0008A
1.24A
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENTF
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENTO
Federal Register
Cite/Source
Gold Book
53FR33178
EPA822-R-98-008
EPA440/5-88-004
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
53FR19028
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
IRIS 01/01/91
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
CAS
Number
Saltwater
Parathion
Pentachlorobenzene
pH
Phosphorus elemental
Phosphate phosphorus
Solids dissolved and salinity
Solids suspended and turbidity
Sulﬁde-hydrogen sulﬁde
Tainting substances
Temperature
Tetrachlorobenzene,1,2,4,5Tributyltin TBT
Trichlorophenol,2,4,5-
56382
608935
—
7723140
—
—
—
7783064
—
—
95943
—
95954
0.065J
0.013J
6.5–8.5F,K
0.1F,K
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENT
250,000A
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENTF
2.0F
2.0F
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENT
NARRATIVE STATEMENT — SEE DOCUMENTM
2.3E
0.063N
0.37N
0.010N
2600B,E
6.5–9F
0.46N
3.5E
5–9
4.1E
2.9E
9800B,E
Gold Book
IRIS 03/01/88
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
IRIS 03/01/91
62FR42554
IRIS 03/01/88
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
A This human health criterion is the same as originally published in the Red Book which predates the 1980 methodology and did not utilize the ﬁsh ingestion
BCF approach. This same criterion value is now published in the Gold Book.
B The organoleptic effect criterion value is more stringent than the value presented in the non priority pollutants table.
C A more stringent Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) has been issued by EPA under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Refer to drinking water regulations
40CFR141 or Safe Drinking Water Hotline (1-800-426-4791) for values.
D According to the procedures described in the Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses, except possibly where a very sensitive species is important at a site, freshwater aquatic life should be protected if both conditions speciﬁed in
Appendix C to the Preamble- Calculation of Freshwater Ammonia Criterion are satisﬁed.
E This criterion has been revised to reﬂect the Environmental Protection Agency’s q1* or RfD, as contained in the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)
as of April 8, 1998. The ﬁsh tissue bioconcentration factor (BCF) used to derive the original criterion was retained in each case.
F The derivation of this value is presented in the Red Book (EPA 440/9-76-023, July, 1976).
G This value is based on a 304(a) aquatic life criterion that was derived using the 1985 Guidelines (Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water Quality
Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses, PB85-227049, January 1985) and was issued in one of the following criteria documents:
Aluminum (EPA 440/5-86-008); Chloride (EPA 440/5-88-001), Chloropyrifos (EPA 440/5-86-005).
I
This value is expressed in terms of total recoverable metal in the water column.
J This value is based on a 304(a) aquatic life criterion that was issued in the 1995 Updates: Water Quality Criteria Documents for the Protection of Aquatic
Life in Ambient Water (EPA-820-B-96-001). This value was derived using the GLI Guidelines (60FR15393-15399, March 23, 1995; 40CFR132 Appendix A);
the differences between the 1985 Guidelines and the GLI Guidelines are explained on page iv of the 1995 Updates. No decision concerning this criterion
was affected by any considerations that are speciﬁc to the Great Lakes.
K According to page 181 of the Red Book:
807
For open ocean waters where the depth is substantially greater than the euphotic zone, the pH should not be changed more than 0.2 units from the
naturally occurring variation of any caes outside the range of 6.5 to 8.5. For shallow, highly productive coastal and estuarine areas where naturally
occurring pH variations approach the lethal limits of some species, changes in pH should be avoided but in any case should not exceed the limits
established for fresh water, i.e., 6.5–9.0.
808
U.S. Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Nonpriority Pollutants (continued)
L There are three major reasons why the use of Water-Effect Ratios might be appropriate. (1) The value of 87 µg/l is based on a toxicity test with the striped
bass in water with pH = 6.5–6.6 and hardness <10 mg/L. Data in “Aluminum Water-Effect Ratio for the 3M Plant Efﬂuent Discharge, Middleway, West Virginia”
(May 1994) indicate that aluminum is substantially less toxic at higher pH and hardness, but the effects of pH and hardness are not well quantiﬁed at this
time. (2) In tests with the brook trout at low pH and hardness, effects increased with increasing concentrations of total aluminum even though the concentration
of dissolved aluminum hydroxide particles. In surface waters, however, the total recoverable procedure might measure aluminum associated with clay
particles, which might be less toxic than aluminum associated with aluminum hydroxide. (3) EPA is aware of ﬁeld data indicating that many high quality
waters in the U.S. contain more than 87 µg aluminum/L, when either total recoverable or dissolved is measured.
M U.S. EPA. 1973. Water Quality Criteria 1972. EPA-R3-73-033. National Technical Information Service, Springﬁeld, VA.; U.S. EPA. 1977. Temperature Criteria
for Freshwater Fish: Protocol and Procedures. EPA-600/3-77-061. National Technical Information Service, Springﬁeld, VA.
N This value was announced (62FR42554, August 7, 1997) as a proposed 304(a) aquatic life criterion. Although EPA has not responded to public comment,
EPA is publishing this as a 304(a) criterion in today’s notice as guidance for States and Tribes to consider when adopting water quality criteria.
O U.S. EPA. 1986. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen. EPA 440/5-86-003. National Technical Information Service, Springﬁeld, VA.
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
Pollutant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Acenaphthene
Monochlorobenzene
3-Chlorophenol
4-Chlorophenol
2,3-Dichlorophenol
2,5-Dichlorophenol
2,6-Dichlorophenol
3,4-Dichlorophenol
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
2,3,4,6-Tetrachlorophenol
2-Methyl-4-Chlorophenol
3-Methyl-4-Chlorophenol
3-Methyl-6-Chlorophenol
2-Chlorophenol
Copper
2,4-Dichlorophenol
2,4-Dimethylphenol
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
Nitrobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol
Zinc
CAS Number
83329
108907
—
106489
—
—
—
—
95954
88062
—
—
59507
—
95578
7440508
120832
105679
77474
98953
87865
108952
7440666
Organoleptic Effect Criteria
(µg/L)
20
20
0.1
0.1
0.04
0.5
0.2
0.3
1
2
1
1800
3000
20
0.1
1000
0.3
400
1
30
30
300
5000
Federal
Register
Cite/Source
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
Gold Book
45FR79341
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
U.S. Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Organoleptic Effects
1. These criteria are based on organoleptic (taste and odor) effects. Because of variations in chemical nomenclature systems, this listing
of pollutants does not duplicate the listing in Appendix A of 40 CFR Part 423. Also listed are the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
registry numbers, which provide a unique identiﬁcation for each chemical.
809
810
U.S. Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Organoleptic Effects (continued)
U.S. RECOMMENDED WATER QUALITY CRITERIA Additional Notes: 1. Criteria Maximum Concentration and Criterion Continuous Concentration
The Criteria Maximum Concentration (CMC) is an estimate of the highest concentration of a material in surface water to which an
aquatic community can be exposed brieﬂy without resulting in an unacceptable effect. The Criterion Continuous Concentration (CCC)
is an estimate of the highest concentration of a material in surface water to which an aquatic community can be exposed indeﬁnitely
without resulting in an unacceptable effect. The CMC and CCC are just two of the six parts of aquatic life criterion; the other four parts
are the acute averaging period, chronic averaging period, acute frequency of allowed exceedance, and chronic frequency of allowed
exceedance. Because 304(a) aquatic life criteria are national guidance, they are intended to be protective of the vast majority of the
aquatic communities in the United States.
2. Criteria Recommendations for Priority Pollutants, Nonpriority Pollutants, and Organoleptic Effects
This compilation lists all priority toxic pollutants and some non priority toxic pollutants, and both human health effect and organoleptic
effect criteria issued pursuant to CWA §304(a). Blank spaces indicate that EPA has no CWA §304(a) criteria recommendations. For a
number of nonpriority toxic pollutants not listed, CWA §304(a) “water + organism” human health criteria are not available, but, EPA has
published MCLs under the SDWA that may be used in establishing water quality standards to protect water supply designated uses.
Because of variations in chemical nomenclature systems, this listing of toxic pollutants does not duplicate the listing in Appendix A of
40 CFR Part 423. Also listed are the Chemical Abstracts Service CAS registry numbers, which provide a unique identiﬁcation for each
chemical.
3. Human Health Risk
The human health criteria for the priority and nonpriority pollutants are based on carcinogenicity of 10–6 risk. Alternate risk levels may
be obtained by moving the decimal point (e.g., for a risk level of 10–5, move the decimal point in the recommended criterion one place
to the right).
5. Calculation of Dissolved Metals Criteria
The 304(a) criteria for metals, shown as dissolved metals, are calculated in one of two ways. For freshwater metals criteria that are
hardness-dependent, the dissolved metal criteria were calculated using a hardness of 100 mg/L as CaCO3 for illustrative purposes only.
Saltwater and freshwater metals’ criteria that are not hardness-dependent are calculated by multiplying the total recoverable criteria
before rounding by the appropriate conversion factors. The ﬁnal dissolved metals’ criteria in the table are rounded to two signiﬁcant
ﬁgures. Information regarding the calculation of hardness dependent conversion factors are included in the footnotes.
6. Correction of Chemical Abstract Services Number
The Chemical Abstract Services number (CAS) for Bis(2-Chloroisoprpyl) Ether, has been corrected in the table. The correct CAS number
for this chemical is 39638-32-9. Previous publications listed 108-60-1 as the CAS number for this chemical.
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
4. Water Quality Criteria published pursuant to Section 304(a) or Section 303(c) of the CWA
Many of the values in the compilation were published in the proposed California Toxics Rule (CTR, 62FR42160). Although such values
were published pursuant to Section 303(c) of the CWA, they represent the Agency’s most recent calculation of water quality criteria
and thus are published today as the Agency’s 304(a) criteria. Water quality criteria published in the proposed CTR may be revised
when EPA takes ﬁnal action on the CTR.
8. Organoleptic Effects
The compilation contains 304(a) criteria for pollutants with toxicity-based criteria as well as non-toxicity based criteria. The basis for the
non-toxicity based criteria are organoleptic effects for 23 pollutants. Pollutants with organoleptic effect criteria more stringent than the
criteria based on toxicity (e.g., included in both the priority and non-priority pollutant tables) are footnoted as such.
9. Category Criteria
In the 1980 criteria documents, certain recommended water quality criteria were published for categories of pollutants rather than for
individual pollutants within that category. Subsequently, in a series of separate actions, the Agency derived criteria for speciﬁc pollutants
within a category. Therefore, in this compilation EPA is replacing criteria representing categories with individual pollutant criteria (e.g.,
1,3-dichlorobenzene, 1,4-dichlorobenzene and 1,2-dichlorobenzene).
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
7. Maximum Contaminant Levels
The compilation includes footnotes for pollutants with Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) more stringent than the recommended
water quality criteria in the compilation. MCLs for these pollutants are not included in the compilation, but can be found in the appropriate
drinking water regulations (40 CFR 141.11-16 and 141.60-63), or can be accessed through the Safe Drinking Water Hotline (800-426
4791) or the Internet (http://www.epa.gov/ost/tools/dwstds-s.html).
10. Speciﬁc Chemical Calculation
A. Selenium
(1) Human Health
In the 1980 Selenium document, a criterion for the protection of human health from consumption of water and organisms was
calculated based on a BCF of 6.0 L/kg and a maximum water-related contribution of 35 µg Se/day. Subsequently, the EPA Ofﬁce
of Health and Environmental Assessment issued an errata notice (February 23, 1982), revising the BCF for selenium to 4.8
L/kg. In 1988, EPA issued an addendum (ECAO-CIN-668) revising the human health criteria for selenium. Later in the ﬁnal
National Toxic Rule (NTR, 57 FR 60848), EPA withdrew previously published selenium human health criteria, pending Agency
review of new epidemiological data.
This compilation includes human health criteria for selenium, calculated using a BCF of 4.8 L/kg along with the current IRIS
RfD of 0.005 mg/kg/day. EPA included these recommended water quality criteria in the compilation because the data necessary
for calculating a criteria in accordance with EPA’s 1980 human health methodology are available.
(2) Aquatic Life
This compilation contains aquatic life for selenium that are the same as those published in the proposed CTR. In the CTR, EPA
proposed an acute criterion for selenium based on the criterion proposed for selenium in the Water Quality Guidance for the
Great Lakes System (61 FR 58444). The GLI and CTR proposals take into account data showing that selenium’s two most
prevalent oxidation states, selenite and selenate, present differing potentials for aquatic toxicity, as well as new data indicating
that various forms of selenium are additive. The new approach produces a different selenium acute criterion concentration, or
CMC, depending upon the relative proportions of selenite, selenate, and other forms of selenium that are present.
EPA notes its currently undertaking a reassessment of selenium, and expects the 304(a) criteria for selenium will be revised
based on the ﬁnal reassessment (63FR26186). However, until such time as revised water quality criteria for selenium are
published by the Agency, the recommended water quality criteria in this compilation are EPA’s current 304(a) criteria.
811
812
U.S. Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Organoleptic Effects (continued)
B. 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene and Zinc
Human health criteria for 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene and zinc have not been previously published. Sufﬁcient information is now available
for calculating water quality criteria for the protection of human health from the consumption of aquatic organisms and the consumption
of aquatic organisms and water for both these compounds. Therefore, EPA is publishing criteria for these pollutants in this compilation.
C. Chromium (III)
The recommended aquatic life water quality criteria for chromium (III) included in the compilation are based on the values presented
in the document titled: 1995 Updates: Water Quality Criteria Documents for the Protection of Aquatic Life in Ambient Water; however,
this document contains criteria based on the total recoverable fraction. The chromium (III) criteria in this compilation were calculated
by applying the conversion factors used in the Final Water Quality Guidance for the Great Lakes System (60 FR 15366) to the 1995
Update document values.
D. Ether, Bis (Chloromethyl), Pentachlorobenzene, Tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-, Trichlorophenol
Human health criteria for these pollutants were last published in EPA’s Quality Criteria for Water 1986 or “Gold Book.” Some of these
criteria were calculated using Acceptable Daily Intake (ADIs) rather than RfDs. Updated q1*s and RfDs are now available in IRIS
for ether, bis (chloromethyl), pentachlorobenzene, tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-, and trichlorophenol, and were used to revise the
water quality criteria for these compounds. The recommended water quality criteria for ether, bis (chloromethyl) were revised using
an updated q1*, while criteria for pentachlorobenzene, and tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-, and trichlorophenol were derived using an
updated RfD value.
E. PCBs
In this compilation EPA is publishing aquatic life and human health criteria based on total PCBs rather than individual arochlors.
These criteria replace the previous criteria for the seven individual arochlors. Thus, there are criteria for a total of 102 of the 126
priority pollutants.
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
813
Appendix A — Conversion Factors for Dissolved Metals
Metal
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium III
Chromium VI
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Selenium
Silver
Zinc
Conversion Factor
(freshwater CMC)
Conversion Factor
(freshwater CCC)
1.000
1.136672–[(ln hardness)
(0.041838)]
0.316
0.982
0.960
1.46203–[(ln hardness)
(0.145712)]
0.85
0.998
—
0.85
0.978
1.000
1.101672–[(ln hardness)
(0.041838)]
0.860
0.962
0.960
1.46203–[(ln hardness)
(0.145712)]
0.85
0.997
—
—
0.986
Conversion Factor Conversion Factor
(saltwater CMC)
(saltwater CCC)1
1.000
0.994
1.000
0.994
—
0.993
0.83
0.951
—
0.993
0.83
0.951
0.85
0.990
0.998
0.85
0.946
0.85
0.990
0.998
—
0.946
Appendix B — Parameters for Calculating Freshwater Dissolved Metals Criteria That Are
Hardness Dependent
mA
bA
mC
bC
Cadmium
1.128
–3.6867
0.7852
–2.715
Chromium II
Copper
Lead
0.8190
0.9422
1.273
3.7256
–1.700
–1.460
0.8190
0.8545
1.273
0.6848
–1.702
–4.705
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
0.8460
1.72
0.8473
2.255
–6.52
0.884
0.8460
—
0.8473
0.0584
—
0.884
Chemical
Freshwater Conversion Factor (CF)
Acute
Chronic
1.136672–[(ln hardness)
(0.041838)]
0.860
0.960
1.46203–[(ln hardness)
(0.145712)]
0.998
0.85
0.978
1.101672–[(ln hardness)
(0.041838)]
0.860
0.960
1.46203–[(ln hardness)
(0.145712)]
0.997
—
0.986
Appendix C — Calculation of Freshwater Ammonia Criterion
1. The one-hour average concentration of total ammonia nitrogen (in mg N/L) does not exceed, more than
once every three years on the average, the CMC calculated using the following equation:
0.275
39.0
CMC = ------------------------------- + ------------------------------
7.204 – pH
pH – 7.204
1 + 10
1 + 10
In situations where salmonids do not occur, the CMC may be calculated using the following equation:
0.411
58.4
CMC = ------------------------------- + ------------------------------
7.204 – pH
pH – 7.204
1 + 10
1 + 10
2. The 30-day average concentration of total ammonia nitrogen (in mg N/L) does not exceed, more than once
every 3 years on the average, the CCC calculated using the following equation:
0.0858
3.70
CCC = ------------------------------- + ------------------------------
7.688 – pH
pH – 7.688
1 + 10
1 + 10
and the highest 4-day average within the 30-day period does not exceed twice the CCC.
AMMONIA
The ammonia criteria are only for the protection of aquatic life, as no criteria have been
developed for the protection of human health (consumption of contaminated ﬁsh or drinking water).
The water quality criteria are for general guidance only and do not constitute formal water quality
814
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
standards. However, the criteria reﬂect the scientiﬁc knowledge concerning the effects of the
pollutants and are recommended EPA acceptable limits for aquatic life.
The data used in deriving the EPA criteria are predominantly from ﬂow-through tests in which
ammonia concentrations were measured. Ammonia was reported to be acutely toxic to freshwater
organisms at concentrations (uncorrected for pH) ranging from 0.53 to 22.8 mg/L NH3 for
19 invertebrate species representing 14 families and 16 genera and from 0.083 to 4.60 mg/L NH3
for 29 ﬁsh species from 9 families and 18 genera. Among ﬁsh species, reported 96-hour LC50
values ranged from 0.083 to 1.09 mg/L for salmonids and from 0.14 to 4.60 mg/L NH3 for other
ﬁsh. Reported data from chronic tests on ammonia with two freshwater invertebrate species, both
daphnids, showed effects at concentrations (uncorrected for pH) ranging from 0.304 to 1.2 mg/L
NH3, and with nine freshwater ﬁsh species, from ﬁve families and seven genera, ranging from
0.0017 to 0.612 mg/L NH3.
Concentrations of ammonia acutely toxic to ﬁshes may cause loss of equilibrium, hyperexcit
ability, increased breathing, cardiac output and oxygen uptake, and, in extreme cases, convulsions,
coma, and death. At lower concentrations, ammonia has many effects on ﬁshes, including a
reduction in hatching success, reduction in growth rate and morphological development, and
pathologic changes in tissues of gills, livers, and kidneys.
Several factors have been shown to modify acute NH3 toxicity in fresh water. Some factors alter
the concentration of un-ionized ammonia in the water by affecting the aqueous ammonia equilibrium,
and some factors affect the toxicity of un-ionized ammonia itself, either ameliorating or exacerbating
the effects of ammonia. Factors that have been shown to affect ammonia toxicity include dissolved
oxygen concentration, temperature, pH, previous acclimation to ammonia, ﬂuctuating or intermittent
exposures, carbon dioxide concentration, salinity, and the presence of other toxicants.
The most well studied of these is pH; the acute toxicity of NH3 has been shown to increase as
pH decreases. However, the percentage of the total ammonia that is un-ionized decreases with
decreasing pH. Sufﬁcient data exist from toxicity tests conducted at different pH values to formulate
a relationship to describe the pH-dependent acute NH3 toxicity. The very limited amount of data
regarding effects of pH on chronic NH3 toxicity also indicate increasing NH3 toxicity with decreas
ing pH, but the data are insufﬁcient to derive a broadly applicable toxicity/pH relationship. Data
on temperature effects on acute NH3 toxicity were limited and somewhat variable, but indications
are that NH3 toxicity to ﬁsh is greater as temperature decreases. There was no information available
regarding temperature effects on chronic NH3 toxicity. Examination of pH and temperature
corrected acute NH3 toxicity values among species and genera of freshwater organisms showed
that invertebrates are generally more tolerant than ﬁshes, a notable exception being the ﬁngernail
clam. There is no clear trend among groups of ﬁsh; the several most sensitive tested species and
genera include representatives from diverse families (Salmonidae, Cyprinidae, Percidae, and Cen
trarchidae). Available chronic toxicity data for freshwater organisms also indicate invertebrates
(cladocerans, an insect species) to be more tolerant than ﬁshes, again with the exception of the
ﬁngernail clam. When corrected for the presumed effects of temperature and pH, there was no clear
trend among groups of ﬁsh for chronic toxicity values. The most sensitive species, including
representatives from ﬁve families (Salmonidae, Cyprinidae, Ictaluridae, Centrarchidae, and Catos
tomidae), have chronic values ranging by not much more than a factor or two. Available data
indicate that differences in sensitivities between warm- and cold-water families of aquatic organisms
are inadequate to warrant discrimination in the national ammonia criterion between bodies of water
with “warm-” and “cold-water” ﬁshes; rather, effects of organism sensitivities on the criterion are
most appropriately handled by site-speciﬁc criteria derivation procedures.
Data for concentrations of NH3 toxic to freshwater phytoplankton and vascular plants, although
limited, indicate that freshwater plant species are appreciably more tolerant to NH3 than are
invertebrates or ﬁshes. The ammonia criterion appropriate for the protection of aquatic animals
will therefore in all likelihood be sufﬁciently protective of plant life.
Ammonia Chronic Criterion, mg/L
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
10
When ELS protection not needed
When ELS protection
needed
1
0
Figure G.1
815
5
10
15
20
Temperature,C
25
30
Chronic criterion values for early life stages (ELS) of ﬁsh in the 1999 update; pH = 7.5.
National Ammonia Water Quality Criteria
The U.S. EPA has published a 1999 Update of Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Ammonia
(1999 Ammonia Update). The 1999 Ammonia Update contains EPA’s most recent freshwater aquatic
life criteria for ammonia, superseding all previous EPA-recommended freshwater criteria for ammo
nia. The 1999 Ammonia Update pertains only to fresh waters and does not change or supersede
the aquatic life criterion for ammonia in salt water, published in Ambient Water Quality Criteria
for Ammonia (Saltwater) in 1989. The new criteria reﬂect recent research and data since 1984, and
are a revision of several elements in the 1984 criteria, including the pH and temperature relationship
of the acute and chronic criteria and the averaging period of the chronic criterion. As a result of
these revisions, the acute criterion for ammonia is now dependent on pH and ﬁsh species, and the
chronic criterion is dependent on pH and temperature. At lower temperatures, the dependency of
chronic criterion is also dependent on the presence or absence of early life stages of ﬁsh (ELS).
The effect of temperature and expected presence of early life stages of ﬁsh on the chronic criterion
in the 1999 Update is shown in Figure G.1. The temperature dependency in the 1999 Update results
in a gradual increase in the criterion as temperature decreases, and a criterion that is more stringent,
at temperatures below 15°C, when early life stages of ﬁsh (ELS) are expected to be present.
EPA’s recommendations in the 1999 Update represent a change from both the 1984 chronic
criterion, which was dependent mainly on pH, and from the 1998 Update, in which the chronic
criterion was dependent on pH and the presence of early life stages of ﬁsh. The temperature depen
dency of ammonia toxicity at temperatures below 20°C is incorporated directly into the criterion of
the 1999 Update. The other signiﬁcant revision in the 1999 Update is EPA’s recommendation of 30
days as the averaging period for the ammonia chronic criterion. EPA recommends the 30B3 (the
lowest 30-day average ﬂow based on a 30-year return interval when ﬂow records are analyzed using
EPA’s 1986 DFLOW procedure), the 30Q10 (the lowest 30-day average ﬂow based on a 10-year
return interval when ﬂow records are analyzed using extreme-value statistics), or the 30Q5 as the
appropriate design ﬂows associated with the 30-day averaging period of the ammonia chronic criterion.
In addition, EPA recommends that within the 30-day averaging period, no 4-day average concentration
should exceed 2.5 times the chronic criterion, or criterion continuous concentration (CCC). Conse
quently, the design ﬂow should also be protective of any 4-day average at 2.5 times the CCC. EPA
believes that in the vast majority of cases, the 30Q10 is protective of both the CCC and any 4-day
average at 2.5 times the CCC. However, if a state or tribe speciﬁes the use of the 30Q5, then the state
or tribe should demonstrate that a 7Q10 (the lowest average 7-day once-in-10-year ﬂow using extreme-
816
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
value statistics) is protective of 2.5 times the CCC, to ensure that any short-term (4-day) ﬂow variability
within the 30-day averaging period does not lead to shorter-term chronic toxicity.
BACTERIA
Development of Bathing Beach Bacteriological Criteria
Dufour (1984) presents an excellent overview of the history of bacterial standards and water
contact recreation, summarized here. Total coliforms were initially used as indicators for monitoring
outdoor bathing waters, based on a classiﬁcation scheme presented by W.J. Scott in 1934. Scott
had proposed four classes of water, with total coliform upper limits of 50, 500, 1000, and
>1000 MPN/100 mL for each class. He had developed this classiﬁcation based on an extensive
survey of the Connecticut shoreline where he found that about 93% of the samples contained less
than 1000 total coliforms per 100 mL. A sanitary survey classiﬁcation also showed that only about
7% of the shoreline was designated as poor. He therefore concluded that total coliform counts of
<1000 MPN/100 mL probably indicated acceptable waters for swimming. This standard was based
on the principle of attainment, where very little control or intervention would be required to meet
this standard. In 1943, the State of California independently adopted an arbitrary total coliform
standard of 1000 MPN/100 mL for swimming areas. This California standard was not based on
any evidence, but it was assumed to relate well with the drinking water standard at the time.
Dufour points out that a third method used to develop a standard for bathing water quality used
an analytical approach adopted by H.W. Streeter in 1951. He used a ratio between Salmonella and
total coliforms, the number of bathers exposed, the approximate volume of water ingested by
bathers daily, and the average total coliform density. Streeter concluded that water containing <1000
MPN total coliforms/100 mL would pose no great S. typhosa health hazard. Dufour points out that
it is interesting that all three approaches in developing a swimming water criterion resulted in the
same numeric limit.
One of the earliest bathing beach studies to measure actual human health risks associated with
swimming in contaminated water was directed by Stevenson (1953), of the U.S. Public Health
Service’s Environmental Health Center, in Cincinnati, OH, and was conducted in the late 1940s.
They studied swimming at Lake Michigan at Chicago (91 and 190 MPN/100 mL median total
coliform densities), the Ohio River at Dayton, KY (2700 MPN/100 mL), at Long Island Sound at
New Rochelle and at Mamaroneck, NY (610 and 253 MPN/100 mL). They also studied a swimming
pool in Dayton, KY. Two bathing areas were studied in each area, one with historically poorer
water quality than the other. Individual home visits were made to participating families in each
area to explain the research program and to review the calendar record form. Follow-up visits were
made to each participating household to ensure completion of the forms. Total coliform densities
were monitored at each bathing area during the study. More than 20,000 persons participated in
the study in the three areas. Almost a million person-days of usable records were obtained. The
percentage of the total person-days when swimming occurred ranged from about 5 to 10%. The
number of illnesses of all types recorded per 1000 person-days varied from 5.3 to 8.8. They found
an appreciably higher illness incidence rate for the swimming group, compared to the nonswimming
group, regardless of the bathing water quality (based on total coliform densities). A signiﬁcant
increase in gastrointestinal illness was observed among the swimmers who used one of the Chicago
beaches on 3 days when the average coliform count was 2300 MPN/100 mL. The second instance
of positive correlation was observed in the Ohio River study where swimmers exposed to the median
total coliform density of 2700 MPN/100 mL had a signiﬁcant increase in gastrointestinal illness,
although the illness rate was relatively low. They suggested that the strictest bacterial quality
requirements that existed then (as indicated above, based on Scott’s 1934 work) might be relaxed
without signiﬁcant detrimental effect on the health of bathers.
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
817
It is interesting to note that in 1959, the Committee on Bathing Beach Contamination of the
Public Health Laboratory Service of the U.K. concluded that “bathing in sewage-polluted seawater
carries only a negligible risk to health, even on beaches that are aesthetically very unsatisfactory”
(Alexander et al. 1992).
Dufour (1984) pointed out that total coliforms were an integral element in establishing fecal
coliform limits as an indicator for protecting swimming uses. As a result of the Stevenson (1953)
study, reported above, a geometric mean fecal coliform level of 200 MPN per 100 mL was
recommended by the National Technical Advisory Committee (NTAC) of the Federal Water Pol
lution Control Administration in 1968 and was adopted by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency in 1976 as a criterion for direct water contact recreation (Cabelli et al. 1979). This criterion
was adopted by almost all states by 1984. It was felt that fecal coliform levels were more speciﬁc
to sewage contamination and had less seasonal variation than total coliform levels. Since fecal
coliform exposures at swimming beaches had never been linked to disease, the NTAC reviewed
the USPHS studies, as published by Stevenson (1953). The 2300 MPN/100 mL total coliform count
association with gastrointestinal disease was used in conjunction with a measured ratio of fecal
coliform to total coliform counts (18%) obtained at the Ohio River site studied earlier. It was
therefore assumed that a health effect could be detected when the fecal coliform count was
400 MPN/100 mL (18% of 2300 = 414). Dufour (1984) notes that a detectable health effect was
undesirable and that the NTAC therefore recommended a limit of 200 MPN/100 mL for fecal
coliforms. Dufour (1984) mentions that, although likely coincidental, the 1968 proposed limit for
fecal coliforms (200 MPN/100 mL) was very close to being theoretically equivalent to the total
coliform limit of 1000 MPN/100 mL that was being replaced (200/0.18 = 1100).
The Cabelli et al. (1979) study was undertaken to address many remaining questions pertaining
to bathing in contaminated waters. Their study examined conditions in New York (at a Coney Island
beach, designated as barely acceptable, and at a Rockaway beach, designated as relatively unpol
luted). About 8000 people participated in the study, approximately evenly divided between swim
mers and nonswimmers at the two beaches. Total and fecal coliforms, Escherichia, Klebsiella,
Citrobacter–Enterobacter, enterococci, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Clostridium perfringens
were evaluated in water samples obtained from the beaches during the epidemiological study. The
most striking ﬁndings were the increases in the rates of vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach ache
among swimmers relative to nonswimmers at the barely acceptable beach, but not at the relatively
unpolluted beach. Ear, eye, nose, and skin symptoms, as well as fever, were higher among swimmers
compared to nonswimmers at both beaches. They concluded that measurable health effects do occur
at swimming beaches that meet the existing health standards. Children, Hispanic Americans, and
low-middle socioeconomic groups were identiﬁed as the most susceptible portions of the population.
Cabelli et al. (1982) presented data from the complete EPA-sponsored swimming beach study,
conducted in New York, New Orleans, and Boston. The study was conducted to address issues
from prior studies conducted in the 1950s (including Stevenson’s 1953 study noted above) that
were apparently contradictory. They observed a direct, linear relationship between highly credible
gastrointestinal illness and enterococci. The frequency of gastrointestinal symptoms also had a high
degree of association with distance from known sources of municipal wastewater. Table G.1 shows
correlation coefﬁcients for total gastrointestinal (GI) and highly credible gastrointestinal (HCGI)
symptoms and mean indicator densities found at the New York beaches from 1970 to 1976. The
best correlation coefﬁcients were found for enterococci. In contrast, the correlation coefﬁcients for
fecal coliforms (the basis for most federal and state guidelines) were poor. Very low levels of
enterococcus and Escherichia coli in the water (about 10 MPN/100 mL) were associated with
appreciable attack rates (about 10/10,000 persons).
They concluded that swimming in even marginally polluted marine bathing water is a signiﬁcant
route of transmission for observed gastrointestinal illness. They felt that the gastrointestinal illness was
likely associated with the Norwalk-like virus that had been conﬁrmed in 2000 cases in a shellﬁsh
associated outbreak in Australia and in several outbreaks associated with contaminated drinking water.
818
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
Table G.1 Correlation Coefﬁcients between Gastrointestinal Symptoms and
Bacterial Densities at New York City Beaches
Indicator
HCGI Correlation
Coefﬁcient
GI Correlation
Coefﬁcient
Number of
Observations
Enterococci
Escherichia coli
Klebsiella
Enterobacter-Citrobacter
Total coliforms
Clostridium perfringens
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Fecal coliforms
Aeromonas hydriphila
Vibrio parahemolyticus
0.96
0.58
0.61
0.64
0.65
0.01
0.59
0.51
0.60
0.42
0.81
0.51
0.47
0.54
0.46
–0.36
0.35
0.36
0.27
0.05
9
9
11
13
11
8
11
12
11
7
From Cabelli et al. 1982.
Table G.2 Correlation Coefﬁcients for Bacterial Parameters and
Gastrointestinal Disease (Freshwater Swimming Beaches)
Enterococci
E. coli
Fecal coliforms
Highly Credible
Gastrointestinal
Illness
Total
Gastrointestinal
Illness
Number of
Study Units
0.774
0.804
–0.081
0.673
0.528
0.249
9
9
7
From Dufour 1984.
Dufour (1984) also reviewed a series of studies conducted at freshwater swimming beaches
from 1979 to 1982, at Tulsa, OK, and at Erie, PA. Only enterococci, E. coli, and fecal coliforms
were monitored, based on the results of the earlier studies. Table G.2 shows the correlation
coefﬁcients for these three bacterial parameters and gastrointestinal disease.
These results are quite different from the results of the marine studies in that both enterococci
and E. coli had high correlation coefﬁcients between the bacterial levels and the incidence of
gastrointestinal illness. However, the result was the same for fecal coliforms, in that there was no
association between fecal coliform levels and gastrointestinal illness. Dufour (1984) concluded that
enterococci would be the indicator of choice for gastrointestinal illness, based on scientiﬁc depend
ability. E. coli could also be used, if only fresh waters were being evaluated. Fecal coliforms would
be a poor choice for monitoring the safety of bathing waters. However, he concluded that numeric
standards should be different for fresh and saline waters because of different die-off rates for the
bacteria and viruses for differing salinity conditions.
Other studies examined additional illness symptoms associated with swimming in contaminated
water, besides gastrointestinal illness, and identiﬁed other potentially useful bacterial indicators.
Seyfried et al. (1985), for example, examined users of swimming beaches in Toronto for respiratory
illness, skin rashes, plus eye and ear problems, in addition to gastrointestinal illness. They found that
total staphylococci correlated best with swimming-associated total illness, plus ear, eye, and skin
illness. However, fecal streptococci and fecal coliforms also correlated (but not as well) with swim
ming-associated total illness. Ferley et al. (1989) examined illnesses among swimmers during the
summer of 1986 in the French Ardèche river basin, during a time when untreated domestic sewage
was entering the river. They examined total coliforms, fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, Pseudomo
nas aeruginosa, and Aeromonas spp., but only two samples per week were available for each swim
ming area. The total morbidity ratio for swimmers compared to nonswimmers was 2.1 (with a 95%
conﬁdence interval of 1.8 to 2.4), with gastrointestinal illness the major illness observed. They found
that fecal streptococci (FS) was the best indicator of gastrointestinal illness. A critical FS value of 20
MPN/100 mL indicated signiﬁcant differences between the swimmers and nonswimmers. Skin
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
819
ailments were also more common for swimmers than for nonswimmers and were well correlated with
the concentrations of fecal coliforms, Aeromonas spp., and P. aeruginosa. They noted that a large
fraction (about 60%) of the fecal coliforms corresponded to E. coli, and that their deﬁnition of fecal
streptococci essentially was what North American researchers termed enterococci.
Many of the available epidemiological studies have been conﬁned to healthy adult swimmers, in
relatively uncontaminated waters. However, it is assumed that those most at risk would be children,
the elderly, and those chronically ill, especially in waters known to be degraded. Obviously, children
are the most likely of this most-at-risk group to play in, or by, water. Alexander et al. (1992) therefore
speciﬁcally examined the risk of illness associated with swimming in contaminated sea water for
children, aged 6 to 11 years old. This study was based on parental interviews for 703 child participants
during the summer of 1990 at Blackpool beach, U.K. Overall, 80% of the samples at the Blackpool
Tower site and 93% of the samples at the South Pier site failed to meet the European Community
standards for recreational waters. All of the 11 designated beaches in Lancashire (including Blackpool
beach), in the northwest region of England, continually failed the European directive imperative stan
dards for recreational waters. During this study, statistically signiﬁcant increases in disease were found
in children who had water contact compared to those who did not. Diarrhea and loss of appetite had
strong associations with the water contact group, while vomiting and itchy skin had moderate associ
ations. No other variables examined (household income, sex of the child, sex of the respondent, general
health, chronic or recurring illness in the child, age of the child, foods eaten, including ice cream, other
dairy products, chicken, hamburgers, shellﬁsh, or ice cubes, acute symptoms in other household
members, presence of children under 5 in the household, and other swimming activities) could account
for the signiﬁcant increases in the reported symptoms for the children who had water contact.
Santa Monica Bay Project
This study was the ﬁrst large-scale epidemiological study in the U.S. to investigate possible adverse
health effects associated with swimming in ocean waters affected by discharges from separate storm
drains (SMBRP 1996). This was a follow-up study after previous investigations found that human
fecal waste was present in the stormwater collection systems (Water Environment & Technology
1996b; Environmental Science & Technology 1996b; Haile et al. 1996). This subsection was previously
considered in Chapter 4 of this book, but is repeated here for comparison with the other discussions
on the development of the standards for bacteria exposure from stormwater.
During a 4-month period in the summer of 1995, about 15,000 ocean swimmers were interviewed
on the beach and during telephone interviews 1 to 2 weeks later. They were queried concerning
illnesses since their beach outing. The incidence of illness (such as fever, chills, ear discharge,
vomiting, coughing with phlegm, and credible gastrointestinal illness) was signiﬁcantly greater
(from 44 to 127% increased incidence) for oceangoers who swam directly off the outfalls, compared
to those who swam 400 yards away, as shown on Table G.3. As an example, the rate ratio (RR) for
fever was 1.6, while it was 2.3 for ear discharges, and 2.2 for highly credible gastrointestinal illness
(HCGI) comprised of vomiting and fever. The approximated associations were weak for any of the
symptoms, and moderate for the others listed. Disease incidence dropped signiﬁcantly with distance
from the storm drain. At 400 yards, and beyond, upcoast or downcoast, elevated disease risks were
not found. The results did not change when adjusted for age, beach, gender, race, socioeconomic
status, or worry about health risks associated with swimming at the beach.
These interviews were supplemented with indicator and pathogen bacteria and virus analyses
in the waters. The greatest health problems were associated with times of highest concentrations
(E. coli > 320 cfu/100 mL, enterococcus > 106 cfu/100 mL, total coliforms > 10,000 cfu/100 mL,
and fecal coliforms > 400 cfu/100 mL). Bacteria populations greater than these are common in
urban runoff and in urban receiving waters. Symptoms were found to be associated with swimming
in areas where bacterial indicator levels were greater than these critical counts. Table G.4 shows
the health outcomes associated with swimming in areas having bacterial counts greater than these
820
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
Table G.3 Comparative Health Outcomes for Swimming in Front of Storm Drain Outfalls, Compared to
Swimming at Least 400 Yards Away
Health Outcome
Relative
Risk
Rate
Ratio
Estimated
Association
Estimated No. of Excess Cases
per 10,000 Swimmers
(rate difference)
Fever
Chills
Ear discharge
Vomiting
Coughing with phlegm
Any of the above symptoms
HCGI-2
SRD (signiﬁcant respiratory disease)
HCGI-2 or SRD
57%
58%
127%
61%
59%
44%
111%
66%
53%
1.57
1.58
2.27
1.61
1.59
1.44
2.11
1.66
1.53
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Weak
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
259
138
88
115
175
373
95
303
314
From SMBRP 1996.
Table G.4 Heath Outcomes Associated with Swimming in Areas Having High Bacterial Counts
Indicator (and
critical cutoff count)
E. coli
(>320 cfu/100 mL)
Enterococci
(>106 cfu/100 mL)
Total coliform bacteria
(>10,000 cfu/100 mL)
Fecal coliform bacteria
(>400 cfu/100 mL)
Health Outcome
Increased
Risk
Risk
Ratio
Estimated
Association
Excess Cases
per 10,000 Swimmers
Earache and
nasal congestion
Diarrhea w/blood
and HCGI-1
Skin rash
46%
24%
323%
44%
200%
1.46
1.24
4.23
1.44
3.00
Weak
Weak
Strong
Weak
Moderate
149
211
27
130
165
88%
1.88
Moderate
74
Skin rash
From SMBRP 1996.
critical values. The association for enterococci with bloody diarrhea was strong, and the association
of total coliforms with skin rash was moderate, but nearly strong.
The ratio of total coliform to fecal coliform was found to be one of the better indicators for
predicting health risks when swimming close to the storm drain. When the total coliforms were
greater than 1000 cfu/100 mL, the strongest effects were generally observed when the total to fecal
coliform ratio was 2. The risks decreased as the ratio increased. In addition, illnesses were more
common on days when enteric viruses were found in the water.
The SMBRP (1996) concluded that less than 2 miles of Santa Monica Bay’s 50-mile coastline
had problematic health concerns due to the storm drains ﬂowing into the bay. They also concluded
that the bacterial indicators currently being monitored do help predict risk. In addition, the total to
fecal coliform ratio was found to be a useful additional indicator of illness. As an outcome of this
study, the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services will post new warning signs advising
against swimming near the outfalls (“Warning! Storm drain water may cause illness. No swimming”).
These signs will be posted on both sides of all ﬂowing storm drains in Los Angeles County. In
addition, county lifeguards will attempt to warn and advise swimmers to stay away from areas
directly in front of storm drain outlets, especially in ponded areas. The county is also accelerating
its studies on sources of pathogens in stormwater.
Bacteria Criteria for Water-Contact Recreation
A recreational water quality criterion can be deﬁned as a “quantiﬁable relationship between the
density of an indicator in the water and the potential human health risks involved in the water’s
recreational use.” From such a deﬁnition, a criterion can be adopted which establishes upper limits for
densities of indicator bacteria in waters that are associated with acceptable health risks for swimmers.
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
821
Table G.5 National Bacteria Criteria (Single Sample Maximum Allowable Density, counts per 100 mL)
Freshwater
Marine water
a
Enterococci
E. coli
Enterococci
Designated
Beacha
Moderate Full
Body Contact
Recreationa
Lightly Used
Full Body
Contacta
Infrequently
Used Full Body
Contacta
Drinking
Waterb
61
235
104
89
298
124
108
406
276
151
576
500
1
1
1
EPA 1986
The Environmental Protection Agency, in 1972, initiated a series of studies at marine and
freshwater bathing beaches which were designed to determine if swimming in sewage-contam
inated marine and fresh water carries a health risk for bathers, and, if so, to what type of illness.
Additionally, the EPA wanted to determine which bacterial indicator is best correlated to swim
ming-associated health effects and if the relationship is strong enough to provide a criterion
(EPA 1986a).
The quantitative relationships between the rates of swimming-associated health effects and
bacterial indicator densities were determined using standard statistical procedures. The data for
each summer season were analyzed by comparing the bacteria indicator density for a summer
bathing season at each beach with the corresponding swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness
rate for the same summer. The swimming-associated illness rate was determined by subtracting
the gastrointestinal illness rate in nonswimmers from that for swimmers.
The EPA’s evaluation of the bacteriological data indicated that using the fecal coliform indicator
group at the maximum geometric mean of 200 organisms per 100 mL, as recommended in Quality
Criteria for Water, would cause an estimated 8 illness per 1000 swimmers at freshwater beaches.
Additional criteria, using E. coli and enterococci bacteria analyses, were developed using these
currently accepted illness rates. These bacteria are assumed to be more speciﬁcally related to poorly
treated human sewage than the fecal coliform bacteria indicator. The equations developed by Dufour
(1983) were used to calculate new indicator densities corresponding to the accepted gastrointestinal
illness rates.
It should be noted that these indicators only relate to gastrointestinal illness, and not other
problems associated with waters contaminated with other bacterial or viral pathogens. Common
swimming beach problems associated with contamination by stormwater include skin and ear
infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Shigella.
National bacteria criteria have been established for contact with bacteria and are shown in
Table G.5. State standards usually also exist for fecal coliform bacteria. Typical public water supply
standards (Alabama’s are shown) are as follows:
1. Bacteria of the fecal coliform group shall not exceed a geometric mean of 2000/100 mL; nor
exceed a maximum of 4000/100 mL in any sample. The geometric mean shall be calculated from
no less than ﬁve samples collected at a given station over a 30-day period at intervals not less than
24 hours. The membrane ﬁlter counting procedure will be preferred, but the multiple tube technique
(ﬁve-tube) is acceptable.
2. For incidental water contact and recreation during June through September, the bacterial quality
of water is acceptable when a sanitary survey by the controlling health authorities reveals no
source of dangerous pollution and when the geometric mean fecal coliform organism density
does not exceed 100/100 mL in coastal waters and 200/100 mL in other waters. When the
geometric mean fecal coliform organism density exceeds these levels, the bacterial water quality
shall be considered acceptable only if a second detailed sanitary survey and evaluation discloses
no signiﬁcant public health risk in the use of such waters. Waters in the immediate vicinity of
discharges of sewage or other wastes likely to contain bacteria harmful to humans, regardless
of the degree of treatment afforded these wastes, are not acceptable for swimming or other
whole-body water-contact sports.
822
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
Standards for ﬁsh and wildlife waters are similar to the above standard for a public water supply,
except Part 1 has different limits: “Bacteria of the fecal coliform group shall not exceed a geometric
mean of 1000/100 mL on a monthly average value; nor exceed a maximum of 2000/100 mL in
any sample.” Part 2 is the same for both water beneﬁcial uses.
CHLORIDE, CONDUCTIVITY, AND TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
Total dissolved solids, chlorides, and conductivity observations are typically used to indicate
the magnitude of dissolved minerals in the water. The term total dissolved solids (or dissolved
solids) is generally associated with fresh water and refers to the inorganic salts, small amounts of
organic matter, and dissolved materials in the water. Salinity is an oceanographic term, and although
not precisely equivalent to the total dissolved salt content, it is related (Capurro 1970). Chlorides
(not chlorine) are directly related to salinity because of the constant relationship between the major
salts in seawater. Conductivity is a measure of the electrical conductivity of water and is also
generally related to total dissolved solids, chlorides, or salinity. The principal inorganic anions
(negatively charged ions) dissolved in fresh water include the carbonates, chlorides, sulfates, and
nitrates (principally in groundwaters); the principal cations (positively charged ions) are sodium,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium.
Human Health Criteria for Dissolved Solids
Excess dissolved solids are objectionable in drinking water because of possible physiological
effects, unpalatable mineral tastes, and higher costs because of corrosion or the necessity for
additional treatment. The physiological effects directly related to dissolved solids include laxative
effects principally from sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate and the adverse effect of sodium
on certain patients afﬂicted with cardiac disease and women with toxemia associated with preg
nancy. One study was made using data collected from wells in North Dakota. Results from a
questionnaire showed that with wells in which sulfates ranged from 1000 to 1500 mg/L, 62% of
the respondents indicated laxative effects associated with consumption of the water. However, nearly
one quarter of the respondents to the questionnaire reported difﬁculties when concentrations ranged
from 200 to 500 mg/L (Moore 1952). To protect transients to an area, a sulfate level of 250 mg/L
should afford reasonable protection from laxative effects.
As indicated, sodium frequently is the principal component of dissolved solids. Persons on
restricted sodium diets may have an intake restricted from 500 to 1000 mg/day (National Research
Council 1954). The portion ingested in water must be compensated by reduced levels in food
ingested so that the total does not exceed the allowable intake. Using certain assumptions of water
intake (e.g., 2 L of water consumed per day) and the sodium content of food, it has been calculated
that for very restricted sodium diets, 20 mg/L sodium in water would be the maximum, while for
moderately restricted diets, 270 mg/L sodium would be the maximum. Speciﬁc sodium levels for
entire water supplies have not been recommended by the EPA, but various restricted sodium intakes
are recommended because: (1) the general population is not adversely affected by sodium, but
various restricted sodium intakes are recommended by physicians for a signiﬁcant portion of the
population, and (2) 270 mg/L of sodium is representative of mineralized waters that may be
aesthetically unacceptable, but many domestic water supplies exceed this level. Treatment for
removal of sodium in water supplies is also costly (NAS 1974).
A study based on consumer surveys in 29 California water systems was made to measure the
taste threshold of dissolved salts in water (Bruvold et al. 1969). Systems were selected to eliminate
possible interferences from other taste-causing substances besides dissolved salts. The study
revealed that consumers rated waters with 320 to 400 mg/L dissolved solids as “excellent,” while
those with 1300 mg/L dissolved solids were “unacceptable.” A “good” rating was registered for
dissolved solids less than 650 to 750 mg/L. The 1962 U.S. Public Health Service Drinking Water
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
823
Standards recommended a maximum dissolved solids concentration of 500 mg/L, unless more
suitable supplies were unavailable.
Speciﬁc constituents included in the dissolved solids in water may cause mineral tastes at lower
concentrations than other constituents. Chloride ions have frequently been cited as having a low
taste threshold in water. Data from Ricter and MacLean (1939) on a taste panel of 53 adults indicated
that 61 mg/L NaCl was the median level for detecting a difference from distilled water. At a median
concentration of 395 mg/L chloride, a salty taste was identiﬁed. Lockhart et al. (1955) when
evaluating the effect of chlorides on water used for brewing coffee, found threshold taste concen
trations for chloride ranging from 210 to 310 mg/L, depending on the associated cation. These data
indicate that a level of 250 mg/L chlorides is a reasonable maximum level needed to protect
consumers.
The causation of corrosion and encrustation of metallic surfaces by water containing dissolved solids
is well known. By using water with 1750 mg/L dissolved solids as compared with 250 mg/L, service
life was reduced from 70% for toilet ﬂushing mechanisms to 30% for washing equipment. Such increased
corrosion was calculated in 1968 to cost the consumer an additional $0.50 per 1000 gallons used.
The U.S. EPA has adopted secondary drinking water standards (40 CFR D143.3) and ambient
water quality criteria. The National Secondary Drinking Water Maximum Contaminant Level
(MCL) for chloride is 250 mg/L (40 CFR D 143.3). This corresponds roughly to a conductivity
measurement of about 1200 µS/cm2, but this is never exactly the case. However, the relationship
between conductivity and chloride can be established on a site-speciﬁc basis. Chloride toxicity is
increased when the counter ion of the chloride salt is not sodium.
Aquatic Life Criteria for Dissolved Solids
All species of ﬁsh and other aquatic life must tolerate a range of dissolved solids concentrations
in order to survive under natural conditions. Studies in Saskatchewan found that several common
freshwater species survived 10,000 mg/L dissolved solids, that whiteﬁsh and pikeperch survived
15,000 mg/L, but only the stickleback survived 20,000 mg/L dissolved solids. It was concluded
that lakes with dissolved solids in excess of 15,000 mg/L were unsuitable for most freshwater ﬁshes
(Rawson and Moore 1944). The 1968 NTAC Report also recommended maintaining an osmotic
pressure level of less than that caused by a 15,000 mg/L solution of sodium chloride.
Indirect effects of excess dissolved solids are primarily the elimination of desirable food plants
and other habitat-forming plants. Rapid salinity changes cause plasmolysis of tender leaves and
stems because of changes in osmotic pressure. The 1968 NTAC Report recommended the following
limits in salinity variation from natural to protect wildlife habitats:
Natural Salinity
(parts per thousand)
Variation Permitted
(parts per thousand)
0 to 3.5 (fresh water)
3.5 to 13.5 (brackish water)
13.5 to 35 (seawater)
1
2
4
Alabama is an example of a state that has established a standard for chloride to protect aquatic
life. A chloride criterion of 230 mg/L is used to protect aquatic life in the Cahaba River.
CHROMIUM
Aquatic Life Effects of Cr3+
Acute values for Cr3+ are available for 20 freshwater animal species in 18 genera ranging from
2.2 mg/L for a mayﬂy to 71 mg/L for caddisﬂy. Hardness has a signiﬁcant inﬂuence on toxicity,
with Cr3+ being more toxic in soft water.
824
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
A life-cycle test with Daphnia magna in soft water gave a chronic value of 66 µg/L. In a
comparable test in hard water, the lowest test concentration of 44 µg/L inhibited reproduction of
D. magna, but this effect may have resulted from ingested precipitated chromium. In a life-cycle
test with the fathead minnow in hard water, the chronic value was 1.0 mg/L. Toxicity data were
available for only two freshwater plant species. A concentration of 9.9 mg/L inhibited growth of
roots of Eurasian watermilfoil. A freshwater green alga was affected by a concentration of 397 µg/L
in soft water. No bioconcentration factor was measured for Cr3+ with freshwater organisms.
National Freshwater Aquatic Life Criteria for Cr3+
The procedures described in the guidelines indicate that, except possibly where a locally
important species is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the 4-day average (chronic) concentration (in µg/L) of Cr3+ does not exceed
the numerical value given by:
e(0.8l90(ln(hardness))+1.561)
more than once every 3 years on the average, and if the 1-hour average (acute) concentration
(in µg/L) does not exceed the numerical value given by:
e(0.8190(ln(hardness))+3.688)
more than once every 3 years on the average. For example, at hardnesses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/L
as CaCO3 the 4-day average concentrations of Cr3+ are 120, 210, and 370 µg/L, respectively, and
the 1-hour average concentrations are 980, 1700, and 3100 µg/L. Many states have adopted these
equations to deﬁne the Cr3+ standards for freshwater aquatic life uses.
Human Health Criteria for Chromium
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of Cr3+ ingested through water
and contaminated aquatic organisms, the ambient water criterion is determined to be 170 mg/L.
For the protection of human health from the toxic properties of Cr3+ ingested through contaminated
aquatic organisms alone, the ambient water criterion is determined to be 3433 mg/L. In contrast,
the ambient water quality criterion for total Cr6+ is recommended to be identical to the existing
drinking water standard, which is 50 µg/L.
COPPER
Effects of Copper on Aquatic Life
Acute toxicity data are available for species in 41 genera of freshwater animals. At a hardness
of 50 mg/L, the genera range in sensitivity from 17 µg/L for Ptychocheilus to 10 mg/L for
Acroneuria. Data for eight species indicate that acute toxicity decreases as hardness increases.
Additional data for several species indicate that toxicity also decreases with increased alkalinity
and total organic carbon.
Chronic values are available for 15 freshwater species and range from 3.9 µg/L for brook trout
to 60 µg/L for northern pike. Fish and invertebrate species seem to be about equally sensitive to
the chronic toxicity of copper.
Toxicity tests have been conducted on copper with a wide range of freshwater plants and the
sensitivities are similar to those of animals. Complexing effects of the test media and a lack of
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
825
Copper Concentration (mg/L)
10
1
0.1
0.01
National Primary Goal
National Secondary Standard
National Ambient Freshwater Criteria
4 day avg/3 yr
National Ambient Freshwater Criteria
1 hr avg/3 yr
0.001
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Hardness (mg/L)
Figure G.2
National copper criteria.
good analytical data make interpretation and application of these results difﬁcult. Protection of
animal species, however, appears to offer adequate protection of plants. Copper does not appear to
bioconcentrate very much in the edible portion of freshwater aquatic species.
National Aquatic Life Criteria for Copper
The U.S. EPA has established a national ambient water quality criteria for the protection of wildlife
(EPA 1986b). The wildlife protection criteria are a function of hardness and are shown in Figure G.2.
Human Health Criteria for Copper
The U.S. EPA has established a primary drinking water goal (40 CFR D Subpart F 141.51) of
1.3 mg/L, a secondary drinking water quality MCL of 1.0 mg/L (40 CFR 143.3).
HARDNESS
Water hardness is caused by the divalent metallic ions (having charges of +2) dissolved in water.
In fresh water, these are primarily calcium and magnesium, although other metals such as iron,
strontium, and manganese also contribute to the hardness content, but usually to a much lesser degree.
Hardness commonly is reported as an equivalent concentration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Concerns about water hardness originated because hard water requires more soap to form a
lather and because hard water causes scale in hot water systems. Modern use of synthetic detergents
has eliminated the concern of hard water in laundries, but it is still of primary concern for many
industrial water users. Many households use water softeners to reduce scale formation in hot water
systems and for water taste reasons.
There are no national standards for hardness, but water hardness has a dramatic effect on criteria
for a number of heavy metals. “The affects of hardness on freshwater ﬁsh and other aquatic life appear
826
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
to be related to the ions causing hardness rather
than hardness (EPA 1986b).” The USGS classiﬁes
Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3)
Classiﬁcation
the hardness of waters using the scale in Table G.6.
<60
Soft
Natural sources of hardness principally are
61–120
Moderately hard
limestones
which are dissolved by percolating
121–180
Hard
rainwater.
Groundwaters
are therefore generally
>180
Very hard
harder
than
surface
waters.
Industrial sources
From Leeden et al. 1990.
include the inorganic chemical industry and dis
charges from operating and abandoned mines.
Hardness in fresh water is frequently distinguished in carbonate and noncarbonate fractions.
The carbonate fraction is chemically equivalent to the bicarbonates present in water. Since bicar
bonates are generally measured as alkalinity, the carbonate hardness is equal to the alkalinity.
The determination of hardness in raw waters subsequently treated and used for domestic water
supplies is useful as a parameter to characterize the total dissolved solids present and for calculating
chemical dosages for water softening. Because hardness concentrations in water have not been
proven to be health related, the ﬁnal level of hardness to be achieved by water treatment principally
is a function of economics. Since water hardness can be removed with treatment by such processes
as lime-soda softening and ion exchange systems, a water quality criterion for raw waters used as
a public water supply is not given by the EPA.
The effects of hardness on freshwater ﬁsh and other aquatic life appear to be related to the ions
causing the hardness rather than by hardness as a general indicator. Both the NTAC (1968) and
NAS (1974) panels have recommended against the use of the term hardness and suggested the use
of the concentrations of the speciﬁc ions instead. For most existing data, it is difﬁcult to determine
whether toxicity of various metal ions is reduced because of the formation of metallic hydroxides
and carbonates caused by the associated increases in alkalinity, or because of an antagonistic effect
of one of the principal cations contributing to hardness, e.g., calcium, or a combination of both
effects. Stiff (1971) presented an example showing that if cupric ions were the toxic form of copper,
whereas copper carbonate complexes were relatively nontoxic, then the observed difference in
toxicity of copper between hard and soft waters can be explained by the difference in alkalinity
rather than hardness. Recent laboratory work has also shown that alkalinity may be more related
to heavy metal toxicity than water hardness. As noted previously, however, carbonate hardness and
alkalinity are the same.
Doudoroff and Katz (1953), in their review of the literature on toxicity, presented data showing
that increasing calcium in particular reduced the toxicity of other heavy metals. Under usual
conditions in fresh water and assuming that other bivalent metals behave like copper, it is reasonable
to assume that both effects occur simultaneously and explain the observed reduction of toxicity of
metals in waters containing carbonate hardness. The amount of reduced toxicity related to hardness,
as measured by a 40-hour LC50 for rainbow trout, has been estimated to be about four times for
copper and zinc when the hardness was increased from 10 to 100 mg/L as CaCO3 (NAS 1974).
As shown in other discussions for speciﬁc heavy metals, many of the heavy metal criteria depend
on water hardness. The allowable concentrations of cadmium, chromium, lead, and zinc to protect
ﬁsh and other aquatic life, are much less in soft waters than in hard waters, for example.
Table G.6 USGS Hardness Scale
HYDROCARBONS
The U.S. EPA has promulgated criteria for several of the organic toxicants that can be found
in stormwater or in urban receiving waters. In addition, the EPA has speciﬁc criteria for the detection
of individual organic molecules. The MCLs (maximum concentration limits) for the individual
chemicals are mostly all well below 0.1 mg/L (40 CFR D Subpart F 141.50 and Subpart G 141.61).
The following table summarizes several of the criteria for toxic organics:
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
827
aldrin+dieldrin
chlorodane
DDT and metabolites
DDE
2,4-dichlorophenol
2,4-dimethylphenol
endosulfan
endrin
pentachlorophenol
phthalate esters
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
0.002 µg/L (acute freshwater aquatic life)
0.007 ng/L (human health)
2.4 µg/L (maximum conc. for acute freshwater aquatic life)
0.046–4.6 µg/L (human health)
1.1 µg/L (maximum concentration for acute freshwater aquatic life)
1.05 mg/L (acute freshwater aquatic life)
2.02 mg/L (acute freshwater aquatic life)
2.1 mg/L (acute freshwater aquatic life)
0.05 µg/L (acute freshwater aquatic life)
0.0023 µg/L (acute freshwater aquatic life)
55 µg/L (acute freshwater aquatic life)
940 µg/L (acute freshwater aquatic life)
0.28–28 ng/L (human health)
Several of the compounds periodically found in urban runoff also have state and/or national
standards for the protection of human health, including some that are recognized carcinogens. The
following table lists typical limits (for Alabama, at 10–5 risk level):
Noncarcinogens
2-Chlorophenol
Diethyl phthalate
Dimethyl phthalate
Di-n-butyl phthalate
Isophorone
Carcinogens
Benzo(ghi)perylene
Benzo(k)ﬂuoranthene
3,3-Dichloro-benzidine
Hexachlorobutadiene
N-Nitrosodiphenylamine
Water and Fish
Consumption
Fish
Consumption
Only
0.12 mg/L
23
313
3
7
0.40 mg/L
118
2900
12
490
0.03 µg/L
0.03
0.39
4.5
50
0.31 µg/L
0.31
0.77
500
160
Florida water quality criteria for organic toxicants include the following pesticide limits:
2,4-D
andrin+dieldrin
chlordane
endosulfan
endrin
heptachlor
lindane
malathion
methoxychlor
mirex
parathion
toxaphene
0.1 µg/L(potable water supply) 0.003 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife) 0.01 µg/L (potable water supply) 0.01 µg/L (recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
0.003 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
0.004 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
0.001 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
0.01 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
0.1 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
0.03 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
0.001 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
0.04 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
0.005 µg/L (potable water supply, recreation, ﬁsh and wildlife)
LEAD
Aquatic Life Summary for Lead
The acute toxicity of lead to several species of freshwater animals has been shown to decrease
as the hardness of water increases. At a hardness of 50 mg/L, the acute sensitivities of 10 species
828
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
Lead Concentration (mg/L)
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
National Primary Goal
National Ambient Freshwater Criteria
4 day avg/3 yr
National Ambient Freshwater Criteria
1 hr avg/3 yr
0.0001
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Hardness (mg/L)
Figure G.3
National lead criteria.
range from 142 µg/L for an amphipod to 236 mg/L for a midge. Data on the chronic effects of lead
on freshwater animals are available for two ﬁsh and two invertebrate species. The chronic toxicity of
lead also decreases as hardness increases and the lowest and highest available chronic values (12.3
and 128 µg/L) are both for a cladoceran, but in soft and hard water, respectively. Freshwater algae
are affected by concentrations of lead above 500 µg/L, based on data for four species. Bioconcentration
factors are available for four invertebrate and two ﬁsh species and range from 42 to 1700.
National Aquatic Life Criteria for Lead
For the protection of wildlife, U.S. EPA has set a national freshwater criteria for lead that is a
function of hardness. Figure G.3 shows these standards.
Human Health Criteria for Lead
The U.S. EPA has set the lead National Drinking Water MCL goal at 0 mg/L (40 CFR D Subpart F
141.51) and the National Drinking Action Level at 0.015 mg/L (40 CFR D Subpart I 141.80 (2) (c)).
NITRATE AND NITRITE
Two gases (molecular nitrogen and nitrous oxide) and ﬁve forms of nongaseous, combined
nitrogen (amino and amide groups, ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate) are important in the nitrogen
cycle. The amino and amide groups are found in soil organic matter and as constituents of plant and
animal protein. The ammonium ion either is released from proteinaceous organic matter and urea
or is synthesized in industrial processes involving atmospheric nitrogen ﬁxation. The nitrite ion is
formed from the nitrate or the ammonium ions by certain microorganisms found in soil, water,
sewage, and the digestive tract. The nitrate ion is formed by the complete oxidation of ammonium
ions by soil or water microorganisms; nitrite is an intermediate product of this nitriﬁcation process.
In oxygenated natural water systems, nitrite is rapidly oxidized to nitrate. Growing plants assimilate
nitrate or ammonium ions and convert them to protein. A process known as denitriﬁcation takes
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
829
place when nitrate containing soils become anaerobic and the conversion to nitrite, molecular
nitrogen, or nitrous oxide occurs. Ammonium ions may also be produced in some circumstances.
Among the major point sources of nitrogen entering water bodies are municipal and industrial
wastewaters, septic tanks, and feed lot discharges. Nonpoint sources of nitrogen include farm-site
fertilizer and animal wastes, lawn fertilizer, sanitary landﬁll leachate, atmospheric fallout, nitric
oxide and nitrite discharges from automobile exhausts and other combustion processes, and losses
from natural sources such as mineralization of soil organic matter. Water reuse systems in some
ﬁsh hatcheries employ a nitriﬁcation process for ammonia reduction; this may result in exposure
of the hatchery ﬁsh to elevated levels of nitrite (Russo et al. 1974).
Human Health Nitrate and Nitrite Criteria
In quantities normally found in food or feed, nitrates become toxic only under conditions in
which they are, or may be, reduced to nitrites. Otherwise, at “reasonable” concentrations, nitrates
are rapidly excreted in the urine. High intake of nitrates constitutes a hazard primarily to warm
blooded animals under conditions that are favorable to reduction to nitrite. Under certain cir
cumstances, nitrate can be reduced to nitrite in the gastrointestinal tract. It then reaches the
bloodstream and reacts directly with hemoglobin to produce methemoglobin, consequently
impairing oxygen transport.
The reaction of nitrite with hemoglobin can be hazardous in infants under 3 months of age.
Serious and occasionally fatal poisonings in infants have occurred following ingestion of
untreated well waters shown to contain nitrate at concentrations greater than 10 mg/L nitrate
nitrogen (as N) (NAS 1974). High nitrate concentrations are frequently found in shallow farm
and rural community wells, often as the result of inadequate protection from barnyard drainage
or from septic tanks (USPHS 1961; Stewart et al. 1967). Increased concentrations of nitrates
also have been found in streams from farm tile drainage in areas of intense fertilization and farm
crop production (Harmeson et al. 1971). Approximately 2000 cases of infant methemoglobinemia
have been reported in Europe and North America between 1945 and 1950; 7 to 8% of the affected
infants died (Walton 1951). Many infants have drunk water in which the nitrate nitrogen content
was greater than 10 mg/L without developing methemoglobinemia. The differences in suscepti
bility to methemoglobinemia are not yet understood, but appear to be related to a combination
of factors including nitrate concentration, enteric bacteria, and the lower acidity characteristic
of the digestive systems of baby mammals. Methemoglobinemia systems and other toxic effects
were observed when high nitrate well waters containing pathogenic bacteria were fed to labora
tory mammals (Wolff et al. 1972). Conventional water treatment has no signiﬁcant effect on
nitrate removal from water (NAS 1974).
Because of the potential risk of methemoglobinemia to bottle-fed infants, and in view of the
absence of substantiated physiological effects at nitrate concentrations below 10 mg/L nitrate
nitrogen, this level is the criterion for domestic water supplies. Waters with nitrite nitrogen con
centrations over 1 mg/L should not be used for infant feeding. Waters with a signiﬁcant nitrite
concentration usually would be heavily polluted and probably bacteriologically unacceptable.
The only national criterion for nitrate is 10 mg/L as N (40 CFR D Subpart F 141.51). The
criterion applies to domestic water supplies. As noted above, the real danger from nitrate occurs
when nitrate occurs in a reducing environment and converts to nitrite. The U.S. EPA set a National
Primary Drinking Water MCL for nitrite at 1 mg/L as N (40 CFR D Subpart F 141.51).
Nitrate and Nitrite Aquatic Life Criteria
For ﬁngerling rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, the respective 96-hour and 7-day LC50 toxicity
values were 1360 and 1060 mg/L nitrate nitrogen in fresh water (Westin 1974). Knepp and Arkin
(1973) observed that largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, and channel catﬁsh, Ictalurus punc-
830
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
tatus, could be maintained at concentrations up to 400 mg/L nitrate without signiﬁcant effect on
their growth and feeding activities.
Nitrite forms of nitrogen were found to be much more toxic than nitrate forms. As an example,
the 96-hour and 7-day LC50 values for chinook salmon were found to be 0.9 and 0.7 mg/L nitrite
nitrogen in fresh water (Westin 1974). The effects of nitrite nitrogen on yearling rainbow trout,
Oncorhynchus mykiss, showed that they suffered a 55% mortality after 24 hours at 0.55 mg/L;
ﬁngerling rainbow trout suffered a 50% mortality after 24 hours of exposure at 1.6 mg/L; and
chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, suffered a 40% mortality within 24 hours at 0.5 mg/L.
There were no mortalities among rainbow trout exposed to 0.15 mg/L nitrite nitrogen for 48 hours.
These data indicate that salmonids are more sensitive to nitrite toxicity than are other ﬁsh species,
e.g., minnows, Phoxinus laevis, which suffered a 50% mortality within 1.5 hours of exposure to
2030 mg/L nitrite nitrogen, but required 14 days of exposure for mortality to occur at 10 mg/L
(Klinger 1957), and carp, Cyprinus carpio, when raised in a water reuse system, tolerated up to
1.8 mg/L nitrite nitrogen (Saeki 1965).
The EPA concluded that (1) levels of nitrate nitrogen at or below 90 mg/L would have no
adverse effects on warm-water ﬁsh (Knepp and Arkin 1973); (2) nitrite nitrogen at or below 5 mg/L
should be protective of most warm-water ﬁsh (McCoy, 1972); and (3) nitrite nitrogen at or below
0.06 mg/L should be protective of salmonid ﬁshes (Russo et al. 1974; Russo and Thurston 1975).
These levels either are not known to occur or would be unlikely to occur in natural surface waters.
Recognizing that concentrations of nitrate or nitrite that would exhibit toxic effects on warm
or cold-water ﬁsh could rarely occur in nature, restrictive criteria were not recommended by the EPA.
PHOSPHATE
Phosphorus in the elemental form is very toxic (having an EPA marine life criteria of 0.10 µg/L)
and is subject to bioaccumulation in much the same way as mercury. Phosphate forms of phosphorus
are a major nutrient required for plant nutrition. In excessive concentrations, phosphates can
stimulate plant growth. Excessive growths of aquatic plants (eutrophication) often interfere with
water uses and are nuisances.
Generally, phosphates are not the only cause of eutrophication, but frequently it is the key of
all the elements required by freshwater plants (generally, it is present in the least amount relative
to need). Therefore, an increase in phosphorus allows use of other already present nutrients for
plant growth. In addition, of all the elements required for plant growth in the water environment,
phosphorus is the most easily controlled by man. In some aquatic systems, however, nitrogen
compounds may be the most critical nutrients because of relatively large amounts of treated sewage
(which is especially high in phosphates) in relation to other pollution sources, such as agricultural
and urban runoff (which are high in nitrogen).
Phosphates enter waterways from several different sources. The human body excretes about one
pound per year of phosphorus compounds. The use of phosphate detergents increases the per capita
contribution to about 3.5 lb per year of phosphorus compounds. Some industries, such as potato
processing, have wastewaters high in phosphates. Many nonpoint sources (crop, forest, and urban
lands) contribute varying amounts of phosphorus compounds to watercourses. This drainage may
be surface runoff of rainfall, efﬂuent from agricultural tile lines, or return ﬂow from irrigation. Cattle
feedlots, birds, tree leaves, and fallout from the atmosphere all are contributing sources.
Evidence indicates that (1) high phosphorus compound concentrations are associated with
accelerated eutrophication of waters, when other growth-promoting factors are present; (2) aquatic
plant problems develop in reservoirs and other standing waters at phosphorus values lower than
those critical in ﬂowing streams; (3) reservoirs and lakes collect phosphates from inﬂuent streams
and store a portion of them within consolidated sediments, thus serving as a phosphate sink; and
(4) phosphorus concentrations critical to noxious plant growth vary and nuisance growths may
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
831
result from a particular concentration of phosphate in one geographical area but not in another.
The amount or percentage of inﬂowing nutrients that may be retained by a lake or reservoir is
variable and will depend upon: (1) the nutrient loading to the lake or reservoir; (2) the volume of
the euphotic zone; (3) the extent of biological activities; (4) the detention time within a lake basin
or the time available for biological activities; and (5) the discharge from the lake.
Once nutrients are discharged into an aquatic ecosystem, their removal is tedious and expensive.
Phosphates are used by algae and higher aquatic plants and may be stored in excess of use within
the plant cells. With decomposition of the plant cell, some phosphorus may be released immediately
through bacterial action for recycling within the biotic community, while the remainder may be
deposited with sediments. Much of the material that combines with the consolidated sediments
within the lake bottom is bound permanently and will not be recycled into the system, but some
can be released in harmful quantities.
Aquatic Life Summary for Phosphate
Total phosphate concentrations in excess of 100 µg/L (expressed as total phosphorus) may
interfere with coagulation in water treatment plants. When such concentrations exceed 25 µg/L
at the time of the spring turnover on a volume-weighted basis in lakes or reservoirs, they may
occasionally stimulate excessive or nuisance growths of algae and other aquatic plants. Algal
growths cause undesirable tastes and odors in water, interfere with water treatment, become
aesthetically unpleasant, and alter the chemistry of the water supply. They contribute to
eutrophication.
To prevent the development of biological nuisances and to control accelerated or cultural
eutrophication, total phosphates as phosphorus (P) should not exceed 50 µg/L in any stream at the
point where it enters any lake or reservoir, nor 25 µg/L within the lake or reservoir. A desired goal
for the prevention of plant nuisances in streams or other ﬂowing waters not discharging directly to
lakes or impoundments is 100 µg/L total P (Mackenthun 1973). Most relatively uncontaminated
lake districts are known to have surface waters that contain from 10 to 30 µg/L total phosphorus
as P (Hutchinson 1957).
The majority of the nation’s eutrophication problems are associated with lakes or reservoirs,
and currently there are more data to support the establishment of a limiting phosphorus level in
those waters than in streams or rivers that do not directly impact such water. There are natural
conditions, also, that would dictate the consideration of either a more or less stringent phosphorus
level. Eutrophication problems may occur in waters where the phosphorus concentration is less
than that indicated above and, obviously, such waters would need more stringent nutrient limits.
Likewise, there are those waters within the United States where phosphorus is not now a limiting
nutrient and where the need for phosphorus limits is substantially diminished.
There are two basic needs in establishing a phosphorus criterion for ﬂowing waters: one is to
control the development of plant nuisances within the ﬂowing water and, in turn, to control and
prevent animal pests that may become associated with such plants. The other is to protect the
downstream receiving waterway, regardless of its proximity in linear distance. It is evident that a
portion of that phosphorus that enters a stream or other ﬂowing waterway eventually will reach a
receiving lake or estuary either as a component of the ﬂuid mass, as bedload sediments that are
carried downstream, or as ﬂoating organic materials that may drift just above the stream’s bed or
ﬂoat on its water’s surface. Superimposed on the loading from the inﬂowing waterway, a lake or
estuary may receive additional phosphorus as fallout from the atmosphere or as a direct introduction
from shoreline areas.
Another method to control the inﬂow of nutrients, particularly phosphates, into a lake is that
of prescribing an annual loading to the receiving water. Vollenweider (1973) suggests total phos
phorus (P) loadings, in grams per square meter of surface area per year, that will be a critical level
for eutrophic conditions within the receiving waterway for a particular water volume. The mean
832
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
depth of the lake in meters is divided by the hydraulic detention time in years. Vollenweider’s data
suggest a range of loading values that should result in oligotrophic lake water quality:
Mean Depth/Hydraulic
Detention Time
(m/y)
Oligotrophic or
Permissible
Loading
(g/m/yr)
Eutrophic
or Critical
Loading
(g/m/yr)
0.5
1.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
25.0
50.0
75.0
100.0
0.07
0.10
0.16
0.22
0.27
0.32
0.50
0.71
0.87
1.00
0.14
0.20
0.32
0.45
0.55
0.63
1.00
1.41
1.73
2.00
There may be waterways where higher concentrations, or loadings, of total phosphorus do not
produce eutrophication, as well as those waterways where lower concentrations or loadings of
total phosphorus may be associated with populations of nuisance organisms. Waters now contain
ing less than the speciﬁed amounts of phosphorus should not be degraded by the introduction of
additional phosphates.
pH
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion activity in a water sample. It is mathematically related to
hydrogen ion activity according to the expression: pH = –log10 H+, where H+ the hydrogen ion activity,
expressed in moles/L. The pH of natural waters is a measure of the acid–base equilibrium achieved
by the various dissolved compounds, salts, and gases. The principal chemical system controlling pH
in natural waters is the carbonate system, which is composed of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
and resulting carbonic acid (H2CO3), bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) and carbonate ions (CO32–) The inter
actions and kinetics of this system have been described by Stumm and Morgan (1970).
pH is an important factor in the chemical and biological reactions in natural waters. The degree
of dissociation of weak acids or bases is affected by changes in pH. This effect is important because
the toxicity of many compounds is affected by the degree of dissociation. One such example is for
hydrogen cyanide. Cyanide toxicity to ﬁsh increases as the pH is lowered because the chemical
equilibrium is shifted toward an increased concentration of a more toxic form of cyanide. Similar
results have also been shown for hydrogen sulﬁde (H2S) (Jones 1964). Conversely, rapid increases
in pH can cause increased NH3 concentrations that are also toxic. Ammonia has been shown to be
10 times as toxic at pH 8.0 as at pH 7.0 (EIFAC 1969).
The solubility of metal compounds contained in bottom sediments, or as suspended material,
is also affected by pH. For example, laboratory equilibrium studies under anaerobic conditions
indicated that pH was an important parameter involved in releasing manganese from bottom
sediments (Delﬁno and Lee 1971).
Coagulation, used for removal of colloidal color and turbidity through the use of aluminum or
iron salts, generally has an optimum pH range of 5.0 to 6.5. The effect of pH on chlorine in water
principally concerns the equilibrium between hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and the hypochlorite ion
(OCI–) according to the reaction:
HOCI = H+ + OCI–
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
833
High hydrogen ion concentrations (low pH) would therefore cause much more HOCl to be
present, than at high pH values. Chlorine disinfection is more effective at values less than pH 7
(favoring HOCl, the more effective disinfectant). Water is therefore adjusted to a pH of between
6.5 and 7 before most water treatment processes. Corrosion of plant equipment and piping in the
distribution system can lead to expensive replacement as well as the introduction of metal ions
such as copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium. Langelier (1936) developed a method to calculate and
control water corrosive activity that employs calcium carbonate saturation theory and predicts
whether the water would tend to dissolve metal piping, or deposit a protective layer of calcium
carbonate on the metal. Generally, this level is above pH 7 and frequently approaches pH 8.3, the
point of maximum bicarbonate/carbonate buffering.
Since pH is relatively easily adjusted before, and during, water treatment, a rather wide range
is acceptable for water serving as a source of public water supply. A range of pH from 5.0 to 9.0
would provide a water treatable by typical (coagulation, sedimentation, ﬁltration, and chlorination)
treatment plant processes. As the range is extended, the cost of pH-adjusting chemicals increases.
pH Aquatic Life Effects and Criteria
A review of the effects of pH on freshwater ﬁsh has been published by the European Inland
Fisheries Advisory Commission (1969). The commission concluded:
There is no deﬁnite pH range within which a ﬁshery is unharmed and outside which it is damaged,
but rather, there is a gradual deterioration as the pH values are further removed from the normal range.
The pH range which is not directly lethal to ﬁsh is 5 to 9; however, the toxicity of several common
pollutants is markedly affected by pH changes within this range, and increasing acidity or alkalinity
may make these poisons more toxic. Also, an acid discharge may liberate sufﬁcient CO2 from
bicarbonate in the water either to be directly toxic, or to cause the pH range of 5 to 6 to become lethal.
Mount (1973) performed bioassays on the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas, for a 13
month, one-generation time period to determine chronic pH effects. Tests were run at pH levels of
4.5, 5.2, 5.9, 6.6, and a control of 7.5. At the two lowest pH values (4.5 and 5.2), behavior was
abnormal and the ﬁsh were deformed. At pH values less than 6.6, egg production and hatchability
were reduced when compared with the control. It was concluded that a pH of 6.6 was marginal
for vital life functions.
Bell (1971) performed bioassays with nymphs of caddisﬂies (two species), stoneﬂies (four
species), dragonﬂies (two species), and mayﬂies (one species). All are important ﬁsh food organ
isms. The 30-day TL50 pH values ranged from 2.5 to 5.4, with the caddisﬂies being the most
tolerant and the mayﬂies being the least tolerant. The pH values at which 50% of the organisms
emerged ranged from 4.0 to 6.6 with increasing percentage emergence occurring with the increasing
pH values.
Based on present evidence, a pH range of 6.5 to 9.0 appears to provide adequate protection for
the life of freshwater ﬁsh and bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Outside of this range, ﬁsh suffer
adverse physiological effects, increasing in severity as the degree of deviation increases until lethal
levels are reached:
pH Range
Effect on Fish
5.0–6.0
Unlikely to be harmful to any species unless either the concentration of free CO2 is greater than
20 ppm, or the water contains iron salts which are precipitated as ferric hydroxide, the toxicity
of which is not known
Unlikely to be harmful to ﬁsh unless free CO2 is present in excess of 100 ppm
Harmless to ﬁsh, although the toxicity of other poisons may be affected by changes within this range
6.0–6.5
6.5–9.0
From EIFAC 1969
834
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
The U.S. EPA set a national drinking water secondary standard limiting pH ranges of domestic
water supplies to 6.5 to 8.5 (40 CFR D 143.3). For the protection of ﬁsh and bottom-dwelling
invertebrates, the U.S. EPA recommends that pH values should be less than 9 and greater than 6.5
(EPA 1986b).
SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND TURBIDITY
Suspended solids (sometimes referred to as nonﬁlterable residue) and turbidity are related to
the solids content that is not dissolved. Turbidity refers to the blockage of light penetration and is
measured by examining the backscatter from an intense light beam, while suspended solids are
measured by weighing the amount of dried sediment that is trapped on a 0.45-µm ﬁlter, after
ﬁltering a known sample volume. The suspended solids test therefore measures a broad variety of
solids that are contained in the water, including ﬂoatable material and settleable matter, in addition
to the suspended solids. An Imhoff cone can be used to qualitatively estimate the settleable solids
content of water. Subjecting the ﬁlter to a high temperature will burn off the more combustible
solids. The remaining solids are usually referred to as the nonvolatile solids. The amount burned
is assumed to be related to the organic fraction of the wastewater.
Turbidity (and color) can be caused mostly by very small particles (less than 1 µm), while the
suspended solids content is usually associated with more moderate-sized particles (10 to 100 µm).
Suspended solids can cause water quality problems directly, as discussed in the following paragraphs
from Water Quality Criteria (EPA 1986b). They may also have other pollutants (such as organics
and toxicants) associated with them that would cause additional problems. The control of suspended
solids is required in most discharge permits because of potential sedimentation problems down
stream of the discharge and the desire to control associated other pollutants.
Turbid water interferes with recreational use and aesthetic enjoyment of water. Turbid waters
can be dangerous for swimming, especially if diving facilities are provided, because of the
possibility of unseen submerged hazards and the difﬁculty in locating swimmers in danger of
drowning (NAS 1974). The less turbid the water, the more desirable it becomes for swimming
and other water contact sports. Other recreational pursuits, such as boating and ﬁshing, will be
adequately protected by suspended solids criteria developed for protection of ﬁsh and other
aquatic life.
Fish and other aquatic life requirements concerning suspended solids can be divided into those
whose effect occurs in the water column and those whose effect occurs following sedimentation to the
bottom of the water body. Noted effects are similar for both fresh and marine waters. The effects of
suspended solids on ﬁsh have been reviewed by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission
(EIFAC 1969). This review in 1965 identiﬁed four effects on the ﬁsh and ﬁsh food populations.
1. By acting directly on the ﬁsh swimming in water in which solids are suspended, and either killing
them or reducing their growth rate, resistance to disease, etc.
2. By preventing the successful development of ﬁsh eggs and larvae
3. By modifying natural movements and migrations of ﬁsh
4. By reducing the abundance of food available to the ﬁsh
Settleable materials which blanket the bottom of water bodies damage the invertebrate popu
lations, block gravel spawning beds, and if organic, remove dissolved oxygen from overlying waters
(EIFAC 1969; Edberg and Hofstan 1973). In a study downstream from the discharge of a rock
quarry where inert suspended solids were increased to 80 mg/L, the density of macroinvertebrates
decreased by 60%, while in areas of sediment accumulation, benthic invertebrate populations also
decreased by 60% regardless of the suspended solid concentrations (Gammon 1970). Similar effects
have been reported downstream from an area which was intensively logged. Major increases in
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
835
stream suspended solids (25 mg/L upstream vs. 390 mg/L downstream) caused smothering of
bottom invertebrates, reducing organism density to only 7.3 vs. 25.5/ft2 upstream (Tebo 1955).
When settleable solids block gravel spawning beds which contain eggs, high mortalities result.
There is also evidence that some species of salmonids will not spawn in such areas (EIFAC 1969).
It has been postulated that silt attached to the eggs prevents sufﬁcient exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the egg and the overlying water. The important variables are particle size,
stream velocity, and degree of turbulence (EIFAC 1969). Deposition of organic materials to the
bottom sediments can cause imbalances in stream biota by increasing bottom animal density
(principally worms), and diversity is reduced as pollution-sensitive forms disappear (Mackenthun
1973). Algae, likewise, ﬂourish in such nutrient-rich areas, although forms may become less
desirable (Tarzwell and Gauﬁn 1953).
Plankton and inorganic suspended materials reduce light penetration into the water body,
reducing the depth of the photic zone. This reduces primary production and decreases ﬁsh food.
The NAS committee in 1974 recommended that the depth of light penetration not be reduced by
more than 10% (NAS 1974). Additionally, the near-surface waters are heated because of the greater
heat absorbency of the particulate material which tends to stabilize the water column and prevents
vertical mixing (NAS 1974). Such mixing reductions decrease the dispersion of dissolved oxygen
and nutrients to lower portions of the water body. Increased temperatures also reduce the capacity
of the stream to contain dissolved oxygen.
Suspended inorganic material in water also sorbs organic materials, such as pesticides. Follow
ing this sorption process, subsequent sedimentation may remove these materials from the water
column into the sediments (NAS 1974). However, the sedimentation of these polluted sediments
can cause dramatic changes in the benthic microorganism populations, which in turn affect other
aquatic life forms. Recent research associated with the effects of polluted sediments in urban streams
is summarized in earlier chapters of this book.
Water Quality Criteria for Suspended Solids and Turbidity
The EPA water quality criterion for freshwater ﬁsh and other aquatic life is essentially that
proposed by the National Academy of Sciences and the Great Lakes Water Quality Board:
“Settleable and suspended solids should not reduce the depth of the compensation point for photo
synthetic activity by more than 10 percent from the seasonally established norm for aquatic life.”
States have selected numeric values for turbidity. Alabama, for example, uses the same standard
for all designated uses: “There shall be no turbidity of other than natural origin that will cause
substantial visible contrast with the natural appearance of waters or interfere with any beneﬁcial
uses which they serve. Furthermore, in no case shall turbidity exceed 50 Nephelometric units (NTU)
above background. Background will be interpreted as the natural condition of the receiving waters,
without the inﬂuence of man-made or man-induced causes. Turbidity levels caused by natural runoff
will be included in establishing background levels.” In addition, the state of Alabama has minimum
conditions applicable to all state waters that includes: “State waters shall be free from substances
attributable to sewage, industrial wastes, or other wastes that will settle to form bottom deposits
which are unsightly, putrescent, or interfere directly or indirectly with any classiﬁed water use.”
ZINC
Aquatic Life Criteria for Zinc
The U.S. EPA has set a national ambient water quality for the protection of wildlife as a function
of hardness (EPA 1986b), and ambient water quality for the Great Lakes as a function of hardness
(40 CFR 132.3 (b)). Figure G.4 shows these criteria.
836
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
Zinc Concentration (mg/L) 10
1
0.1
National Primary Goal
National Ambient Freshwater Criteria
4 day avg/3 yr
National Ambient Freshwater Criteria
1 hr avg/3 yr
0.01
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Hardness (mg/L)
Figure G.4
Zinc criteria.
Human Health Criteria for Zinc
The U.S. EPA has set a national secondary MCL for zinc at 5 mg/L (40 CFR D 143.3),
based on available organoleptic data, and to control undesirable taste and odor quality of
ambient water. It should be recognized that organoleptic data have limitations as a basis for
establishing water quality criteria, and have no demonstrated relationship to potential adverse
human health effects.
SEDIMENT GUIDELINES
Water quality criteria and standards are proven to be useful tools for helping to assess
receiving water quality and beneﬁcial use attainment. For these reasons, it is logical that
sediment quality criteria would also be a useful tool. However, the complexity of sediments
has impeded establishing guidelines because of the lack of clear relationships between sediment
characteristics and the bioavailability of associated contaminants. Nonetheless, several useful
approaches have been proposed for establishing sediment guidelines (also called criteria,
standards, guidelines, objectives, or assessment values). In recent years, there has been a
tremendous increase in sediment contaminant research and monitoring, which has resulted in
improved sediment quality guidelines. The U.S. EPA has proposed guidelines using a theoret
ical approach known as equilibrium partitioning guidelines. Concentrations of contaminants
are predicted in interstitial water and compared to the chronic water quality criteria to establish
whether the sediments are toxic. Currently there are only criteria for acenaphthene, phenan
threne, ﬂuoranthene, dieldrin, and endrin. This approach normalizes nonpolar organic com
pounds to the sediment total organic carbon content and metals to the acid volatile sulﬁde
content. Both these sediment parameters have been shown to strongly control bioavailability
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
837
Table G.7 Sediment Quality Guidelines for Freshwater Ecosystems
Substance
TEL
PEL
LEL
5.9
0.596
37.3
35.7
35
0.174
18
123
17
3.53
90
197
91.3
0.486
36
315
SEL
MET
TET
ERL
ERM
SQAL
7
0.9
55
28
42
0.2
35
150
17
3
100
86
170
1
61
540
33
5
80
70
35
0.15
30
120
85
9
145
390
110
1.3
50
270
NG
NG
NG
NG
NG
NG
NG
NG
85
35
340
225
230
400
400
60
600
350
4000
960
640
2100
1380
1600
2500
2800
3600
2200
35000
NG
540
470
1800
NG
NG
NG
NG
6200
NG
NG
50
400
NG
6
8
20
15
7
350
45
NG
NG
NG
110
NG
NG
NG
NG
42
NG
3.7
Metals (in mg/kg DW)
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Zinc
6
0.6
26
16
31
0.2
16
120
33
10
110
110
250
2
75
820
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (in µg/kg DW)
Anthracene
Fluorene
Naphthalene
Phenanthrene
Benz[a]anthracene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Chrysene
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
Total PAHs
NG
NG
NG
41.9
31.7
31.9
57.1
NG
111
53
NG
Total PCBs
34.1
NG
NG
NG
515
385
782
862
2355
875
NG
220
190
NG
560
320
370
340
60
750
490
4000
3700
1600
NG
9500
14800
14400
4600
10200
8500
100000
NG
NG
400
400
400
500
600
NG
600
700
NG
NG
NG
600
800
500
700
800
2000
1000
NG
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (in µg/kg DW)
277
70
5300
200
1000
Organochlorine Pesticides (in µg/kg DW)
Chlordane
Dieldrin
Sum DDD
Sum DDE
Sum DDT
Total DDTs
Endrin
Heptachlor epoxide
Lindane (gamma-BHC)
4.5
2.85
3.54
1.42
NG
7
2.67
0.6
0.94
8.9
6.67
8.51
6.75
NG
4450
62.4
2.74
1.38
7
2
8
5
8
7
3
5
3
60
910
60
190
710
120
1300
50
10
7
2
10
7
9
NG
8
5
3
30
300
60
50
50
NG
500
30
9
0.5
0.02
2
2
1
3
0.02
NG
NG
PEL = Probable effect level; dry weight (Smith et al. 1996). SEL = Severe effect level, dry weight (Persaud et al. 1993). TET = Toxic effect threshold; dry weight (EC and MENVIQ 1992). ERM = Effects range median; dry weight (Long and Morgan 1991). NG = No guideline. (e.g., Ingersoll et al. 1997). It does not appear that the U.S. EPA approach will result in
additional guidelines in the near future. There have been several empirical approaches that are
based on co-occurrence of adverse biological effects observed in the ﬁeld or laboratory related
to sediment contaminant concentrations. Tables G.7 and G.8 list some of the most reliable
sediment quality guidelines available. Included in these are some “consensus” approaches that
may be a ﬁrst priority if one chooses to use a sediment guideline in their assessment. It is
interesting to note that the majority of the approaches produce guidelines that are relatively
similar; therefore, the consensus approach has added credibility.
838
Table G.8 Sediment Quality Guidelines for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (µg/g organic carbon)a
PAH
ERLb
ERMb
TELb
PELb
SLCb
LAETb
Naphthalene
Acenaphthylene
Acenaphthene
Fluorene
Phenanthrene
Anthracene
Low-molecular-weight
PAH
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
Benz[a]anthracene
Chrysene
Benzo[b]ﬂuoranthene
Benzo[k]ﬂuoranthene
Benzo[a]pyrene
High-molecular-weight
PAH
Total PAH
16
4
2
2
24
9
57
210
64
50
54
150
110
638
3
1
1
2
9
5
21
39
13
9
14
54
24
153
41
5
6c
10
37
16
115
210
>56
50
54
150
96
616
270
130
200
360
690
1300
2950
60
66
26
38
32c
28c
43
293
510
260
160
280
188c
162c
160
1720
11
15
7
11
7c
6c
9
66
149
140
69
85
71c
61c
76
651
64
66
26
38
32c
28c
40
294
170
260
130
140
160
160
160
1180
3000
1,600
510
920
445
445
360
7280
300
350
2358
87
804
409
1796
10,230
211
ERL = effects range-low;
ERM = effects range-median;
TEL = threshold effects level;
PEL = probable effects level;
SLC = screening level concentration;
LAET = low apparent effects threshold; HAET = high apparent effects threshold; EqP = U.S. Environmental Protection Agency criteria derived from equilibrium partitioning theory;
TEC = Threshold effect concentration;
MEC = Median effects concentration;
EEC = Extreme effects concentration.
b SQG at 1% OC.
c No SQG. Estimate assuming mean ratio to PAH mixture LC50 for other high-molecular-weight PAHs.
EqP
TEC
Mean
MEC
Mean
Consensus
EEC
290
(119–461)
1800
(682–2,854)
10,000
230
240
STORMWATER EFFECTS HANDBOOK
a
HAETb
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
839
REFERENCES
Alexander, L.M., A. Heaven, A. Tennant, and R. Morris. Symptomatology of children in contact with sea
water contaminated with sewage. J. Epidem. Comm. Health, 46, 340-344, 1992.
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