Phytotechnology Integrity in Environmental Sanitation for Sustainable Development

Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 3(10): 1037-1044, 2007
© 2007, INSInet Publication
Phytotechnology Integrity in Environmental Sanitation for Sustainable Development
Sarwoko Mangkoedihardjo
Laboratory of Environmental Technology, Department of Environmental Engineering, Sepuluh
Nopember Institute of Technology, Campus ITS Sukolilo Surabaya, Indonesia 60111.
Abstract: The paper reviews the essential roles of reinvention technology, focusing on the use of plants
for design and process in environmental sanitation. Phytostructure consists of greenspace area and
distribution which are addressed to sequestrate carbon dioxide released by human activities and to prevent
environmental impact respectively. Cities may conduct an assessment for the required area based on
population number and its distribution according to the local physical conditions. Phytoprocesses are
controlling factors for quality of environmental resources to save quantity and sustainability. Conservative
substances will be controlled by phytostabilization followed by rhizofiltration, phytoextraction and
phytovolatilization to some extent, while non-conservative contaminants will undergo all processes.
Phytosacrifice to disaster offers innovations in impact prevention due to natural disaster. Lesson from the
extent of tsunami wave height, travel distance, and in analogy to open channel flow, it can be expected
that coastal greenspace is promising measure to suppress wave travel into inland. Phytotoxicology is
essential for using wastewater irrigation that should not create a risk towards crops. General assurance for
safe and healthy living components and environmental media are addressed as well by the subject. These
are challenging subjects in scientific innovations and can be put in reality for international consensus on
sustainable development.
Keywords: Phytostructure, phytoprocesses, phytosacrifice, phytotoxicology
INTRODUCTION
Environmental sanitation is defined as an
intervention to break the cycles of disease towards
human [5 5 ]. Traditionally, this comprises disposal and
treatment of human excreta, solid waste and
wastewater, control of disease vectors, and provision of
washing facilities for personal and domestic hygiene.
The conventional approach to environmental sanitation
is a man-made technology and characterized by a linear
waste management system, where valuable plant
nutrients are often not only wasted, but also create
pollution problems in receiving waters. For concrete
results in sustainable development, the term sustainable
environmental sanitation is used to include the
provision of drinking water and sanitation, biodiversity
and ecosystem management, energy, agricultural
productivity and health [2 ]. The concrete format is clearly
addressing the involvement of biological components
and plants in particular. An example is reuse of
wastewater for agriculture irrigation that could enhance
food productivity at the level of 30 % higher than
clean water irrigation with chemical fertilizer [6 6 ].
W astewater reuse for agriculture purposes is not a new
practice since wastewater irrigation has been
implemented in Greece 3000 BC [1 ]. There is lack of
history in practicing the agriculture sanitation system
for 4500 years. However, the history is started during
1531-1897 when Germany and other European
countries as well as USA were used to apply
wastewater treatment using land processes including
plants [5 4 ]. Early XXI century, some people claim that
material reuse is a new paradigm for environmental
problems. H owever, the truth may be ones are just
aware that materials can not be destructed and
therefore materials should be converted or recovered
for reuse.
Progress has been achieved for phytotechnological
approach in order to address the importance of
materials and nutrients recovery [1 5 ,1 9 ,5 8 ,6 1 ]. In general, the
term phytotechnology describes the application of
science and engineering to examine problems and
provide solutions involving plants. The term itself is
helpful in promoting a broader understanding of the
importance of plants and their beneficial role within
both societal and natural systems. A central component
of this concept is the use of plants as living
environmentally sound technologies that provide
Corresponding Author: Dr. Sarwoko Mangkoedihardjo, Laboratory of Environmental Technology, Department of
Environmental Engineering, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, Campus ITS Sukolilo
Surabaya, Indonesia 60111.
Tel: +62315948886, Fax +62315928387, E-mail [email protected]
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J. Appl. Sci. Res., 3(10): 1037-1044, 2007
services in addressing environmental issues. The term
phytoremediation is used to describe the plants
processes in absorption, extraction, conversion and
releasing for contaminants from one medium to
another. These clearly revealed that phytotechnology is
a nature-based approach in solving environmental
problems. Hence, integration of phytotechnology into
conventional environmental sanitation is nothing less
than the format of sustainable environmental sanitation.
The specific approach of sustainable environmental
sanitation is balancing nature-based and man-made
technologies in closing material and nutrient loop.
This paper formulates comprehensive subjects of
phytotechnology and their feasibility in sustainable
environmental sanitation with an aim to support
international consensus as well as commitment of
Indonesia on Agenda 21. This agenda covers three
platforms of sustainable development, i.e. economic
benefit, social prosperity, and less negative impact on
environment. The short term agenda is to achieve the
Millennium Development Goals-MDGs which represent
a renewed commitment to overcome persistent poverty
and to address many of the most enduring failures of
human development. The MDGs agreed by the
international community in 2000 comprise 8 goals, 18
targets and 48 indicators. W ater is interconnected with
all eight MDGs and basic sanitation was added to the
list at the 2002 W orld Summit on Sustainable
Development in Johannesburg [1 8 ].
C ity Phytostructure: Phytostructure refers to
greenspace that is a green within a city, and more
meaningful is plants distribution in addition to the
greenspace area [4 9 ]. It can be a street path, an allotment,
a garden, a canal path, a children’s play area, a
cemetery, a wood land, a nature reserve or even
wasteland. Greenspace program had been conducted in
most countries and it was intensified to respond
increasing level of atmospheric carbon dioxide causing
global warming. Moreover, the implementation of a
worldwide carbon emissions trading system has
prompted the development of plants dedicated to
sequestering carbon dioxide into their tissues.
Furthermore, greenspace program using crops is an
important effort in providing foods and jobs [3 ,4 ,4 0 ,5 6 ]
which are supporting MDGs.
Traditional approach in determining greenspace
area is based on a percentage of city area. Most
literature cited the greenspace area is ranging from 20
% to 40 % of city area [6 7 ] and recently, Indonesia
government regulation on greenspace replaced the
ministerial regulation IMDN 14/1988 [1 7 ] to at least 10
% of city area according to PP 63/2002 [4 5 ]. Besides the
area was less than the previous greenspace regulation
for at least 40 % of city area, the new figure was less
than designated forest area at least 30 % of region
according to UU 41/1999 [6 2 ]. Since the philosophy of
determining greenspace area was not clear, a new
me thod was develope d ba se d on population
number [2 5 ,4 9 ]. Greenspace area with respect of
population number is developed on the following
methodology.
Both human and plants require water for
respiration, producing carbon dioxide. However, plants
are responsible carbon dioxide absorption for
photosynthesis. W ater use fluctuates and is population
served specific. The water use fluctuation in relation to
population number is used to calculate unit volume of
water storage. It was postulated that fluctuation of
water use would be accompanied by fluctuation of
carbon dioxide emission, regardless the time of
occurrence differs each other. Similar to water use
fluctuation, the fluctuation of carbon dioxide emission
could be used to calculate unit volume of carbon
dioxide storage. Carbon dioxide storage was nothing
less than a greenspace area itself, for a given height of
plants, instead of concrete or steel container for water.
Volumetric balance was applied for carbon dioxide
emission and absorption. Volume of emitted carbon
dioxide by human activities is distributed to
environmental media within a city. The environmental
media consists of physical media, i.e. soil, water and
air, and plants as biological media. For a given
volumetric scale of the environmental media, it
suggested that greenspace unit is smaller while
greenspace area is larger as population number
increases. An example is given for the city of
Surabaya, Indonesia, with an area of 340 Km 2 where
the population number is 2.8 M (2000) and 3.2 M
(2005). G reenspace unit of the city should be 18 m 2
cap -1 and 17 m 2 cap -1 , and the area should be 51 Km 2
and 55 Km 2 respectively. A detailed description of
greenspace area determination is provided in Samudro
and Mangkoedihardjo [4 9 ]. The important message is no
single quantitative greenspace area could be generalized
and regulated for all cities, except greenspace
distribution that follows natural guidance.
W ith respect to regulated greenspace, it could be
generalized in accordance to natural conditions.
Greenspace is distributed spatially along rivers and
wetlands [2 7 ] where water availability is required for
photosynthesis. This guideline confirms to technical
management of riparian (ecotone) zone [1 4 ,2 2 ,4 6 ,5 8 ] that is
defined as any land which adjoins, directly influences,
or is influenced by a body of water [2 2 ]. In addition,
greenspace is distributed according to solar pathway [4 9 ]
which is effectively used for photosynthesis, hence,
north-south direction is preferable instead of east-west.
Particular condition is topography of a city that affects
solar intensity as well as environmental impacts.
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J. Appl. Sci. Res., 3(10): 1037-1044, 2007
The sun intensity is higher on the top ground level
than on the low ground level. From this point of view,
it makes sense to distribute greenspace area on the top
ground level of a city to ensure photosynthetic energy
is not limiting factor. This is supporting the traditional
thinking and conventional practice that greening
on the top ground level is to maximize rainfall
interception into soil at the upstream level.
Subsequently, it is maximize groundwater availability
and minimize surface runoff which eventually reducing
flood in low land area. In depth analysis for
topographical assessment for greenspace distribution is
provided in Mangkoedihardjo [3 5 ].
Phytoprocesses Assessment: It is well known that
growth of plant requires water from soil in addition to
carbon dioxide from air. Soil water is absorbed as
transpiration started, normally during the day. In
chemical-polluted soil, plant and/or in corporation with
soil microbes will immobilize and uptake the
chemicals.
The
capacity of plant to remove or
destruct contaminants
has been well
documented [1 9 ,2 1 ,2 3 ,2 9 ,3 1 ,6 9 ,3 9 ,4 3 ,4 8 ,5 1 ,5 3 ,5 7 ,5 9 ,6 1 ]. The removal
process is known as phytoremediation, consisting of
eight pro cesses. T he autho r used the term
phytoprocesses in order to have broader understanding
of phytoremediation for application on various
treatments such as water resources, wastewater and
leachate, and the process description is as follows.
P h yto stab ilization,
p lace
inactiva tio n ,
or
hyperaccumulation refers to contaminant immobilization
in the soil. Rhizofiltration, phytofiltration, or
phytoimmobilization refers to contaminant adsorption or
precipitation onto roots or absorption into the roots,
whereas rhizodegradation or enhanced rhizosphere
biodegradation is the breakdown of contaminants within
the soil through microbial activity that is enhanced by
the growth of yeast, fungi, or bacteria on the natural
substances released into the soil by plant roots— sugars,
alcohols, and acids—containing organic carbon. The
organic carbon provides food for soil microbes which
biodegrade contaminants as they consume the plant
root exudates. Phytoextraction, phytoaccumulation,
phytoabsorption, phytosequestration, or phytomining
refers to contaminant uptake and translocation into
plant parts. Phytodegradation, phytolignification, or
phytotransformation is the breakdown of contaminants
taken up by plants through metabolic processes within
the plant, or the breakdown of contaminants
external to the plant through the effect of compounds
(such as enzymes) produced by the plants [9 ] .
Contaminants are degraded, and may be incorporated
into the plant tissues, or used as nutrients.
Phytovolatilization describes the uptake by plants of
contaminants that are, in turn, released from the plant
in vapor form into the atmosphere. The contaminant
may be modified chemically within the plant before
release into the atmosphere.
Phytovolatilization is affected by plant transpiration
and due to the process plants could absorb large
volume of soil water, especially in tropical and large
greenspace area conditons. As a result shallow
groundwater level is rising up and soil contaminants
are accumulated in surface soil and hence, groundwater
pollution could be minimized. The mechanism
characterized phytotechnology as a hydraulic control.
T he la st b ut no t le a st i s v e g e ta te d c ap ,
evapotranspiration cap, or waterbalance cover. The
process
is
intercepting
rain
precipitation for
releasing back to atmosphere. The process is able to
rain
control
and
minimize
contaminants
infiltration into deep soil when rainy.
W ater Resources: Starting with evaporation of water
from sea surface, it is a natural process of water
treatment and given free of charge. W ith an assumption
the land cover is growing with housing settlement by
decreasing greenspace area, the result of rain will be
direct runoff to the sea. In addition, water may be
treated using m an-m ad e technology such as
sedimentation and filtration [5 0 ] which needs external
sources and charged. Phytotechnology combined with
ecohydrology is an effort to reduce the impact in
addition to store more water retention in land [5 8 ].
Besides storing water, the water quality will be
improved due to phytoprocesses mentioned above.
In tropical countries, or countries having two
seasons, phytotechnology will be of paramount
important since daily sun radiation is about 12 hours.
W ater fluctuates twice a year resulted in high yield in
rainy season and low yield in dry season. Using water
balance methods it can be deduced that water storage
is large. If there is insufficient area of greenspace
means that natural water storage became
less
and resulted in water scarcity in dry season and
floods in rainy season.
An indicator for plants capacity to treat water
resources is developed using phytopumping indices in
evapotranspiration bed [3 4 ]. Phytopumping is defined as
the capacity of plants to absorb water through roots
and transpire water through leaves that is driven by
solar energy. An upward flow through plant roots as
transpiration stream and evaporation (E) to the air are
the process of evapotranspiration (Et). The level of
phytopumping could be measured as transpiration factor
which was expressed as Et/E of more than 1. However,
the sustainability of using plants in evapotranspiration
bed has to be assured. A technical measure of plants
sustainability is dry mass growth which is expressed as
relative growth rate (RGR). The author concludes that
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J. Appl. Sci. Res., 3(10): 1037-1044, 2007
a real phytopumper should have phytopumping indices
as high Et/E corresponding to low RGR, and offered
further research to quantify the indices.
W astes Treatment: Phytopumping indices are useful
in plants selection for on-site sanitation using
evapotranspiration bed [2 8 ,2 9 ] and where ground water
table is high. Mangkoedihardjo [3 4 ] conducted a study
for six plants species in simulated evapotranspiration
beds under greenhouse conditions. All tested plants i.e.
spinah, peanut, elephant grass, calos, cattapa, citrus
were shown to perform Et/E of more than 1. High Et/E
corresponding to high RGR was significantly shown for
the first three plants. Low Et/E corresponding to low
RGR was the characteristic of calos and cattapa. These
facts explained that water was absorbed and used for
plant tissue building. The last coastal plant citrus
(Morinda citrafolia) was found having high Et/E that
corresponded to low RGR, representing the indices for
real phytopumping of water and suitable for the
application in evapotranspiration bed. Remarkable
prospect of phytopumping indices for water resource
treatment is the application of coastal greenspace. Saltadapted plants such as mangrove could play a role in
hydraulic control and immobilize salt by which inland
fresh water is secured. Thus coastal greenspace
provides contaminants barrier and sustainable fresh
water availability.
Phytotechnology can be focused on wastes
treatment. Urban wastes as well as industrial wastes are
considered the most serious and pressing urban
environmental problems. Studies have been conducted
and well documented [5 ,8 ,1 1 ,1 2 ,3 3 ,4 1 ,4 2 ,6 8 7 0 ]. Special attention
was given to non-biodegradable organic waste due to
persistence in environment. Increasing biodegradability
of a low BOD/COD ratio could be carried out by
means of physical treatment using hydrothermal
reactions [1 6 ,2 0 ,5 2 ,6 5 ],
ultraviolet
photocatalytic
oxidation [6 ], ozonation [6 4 ], chemical treatment by means
of addition of soluble carbohydrates [1 3 ], microbial
treatment by means of appropriate combination of
anaerobic and aerobic reactors [7 ,4 7 ]. An option of using
natural organic chemicals produced by plants which is
released from roots would be promising that has been
investigated by Mangkoedihardjo [2 3 ,3 0 ]. Plant roots
release exudates such as short chain organic acids,
phenolics, enzymes, and proteins which are highly
biodegradable. A mixture of organic matter-containing
wastewater with low BOD/COD ratio and organic
matter-releasing plant roots with high BOD/COD ratio
could be expected to increase biodegradability of
u n tr e a ted w a ste w a te r. T h e se su g g e st th a t
phytotechnology could be applied prior to microbial
process for low biodegradability level of waste.
In addition to wastewaters, solid waste disposal site
may require greenbelt. The quantity of solid waste has
to be converted into population equivalent, and
subsequently the greenbelt area is determined
principally equals to greenspace area as described by
Samudro and Mangkoedihardjo [4 9 ]. Connected to solid
waste disposal facility, leachate could be treated by
plants to uptake contaminants [2 6 ].
Composting program for solid waste management
is recently intensified in many big cities of Java that
promote the use of compost and encourage active
participation in composting activities, and provide
incentives for consumer and producers to use compost.
This was supported by the fact that at least 65 % of
total waste was biodegradable one. There is good
potential for large-scale composting to improve the
management of municipal solid waste [3 7 ]. A couple of
compost indices, i.e. stability and maturity have to be
assured in order to achieve good compost quality,
leading to scale up the compost industry and
competitive market. Mangkoedihardjo [3 2 ] made a
revaluation
of
both and suggested that mature
compost should have C/N ratio of less than 14 instead
of 20, corresponding to BOD/COD ratio of less than
0.1. Maturity is a measure of compost that is
conducive for crop growth [6 3 ] which is directly
connected to phytotechnology.
E n v ir o n m e n t a l R e h a b i lit a tio n : I n p r a c tic e ,
phytoremediation means improving quality using plants
for polluted environment and the remediated sites could
be either reused or other purposes. Particular polluted
site is post closure of solid waste landfill that has to be
rehabilitated. Phytoremediation for polluted water, soil,
and sediment has been progressing and well
documented [1 9 ] and the process is equally the same as
phytotreatment for wastewater. Investigation on the
capacity of plant to treat chemicals-containing media
has been carried out intensively[1 0 ,2 1 ,2 3 ,2 9 ,3 8 3 9 ,4 3 ,4 8 ,5 1 ,5 3 ,5 7 ].
All of these could be adopted to remediate post closure
landfill and other polluted environmental media.
Phytosacrifice to Disaster: Indonesia is one of
countries where experiencing natural disaster like
tsunami wave. Tsunami disaster in Aceh and North
Sumatra occurred on December 26, 2004, and was
reported as the world’s first global disaster. The wave
traveled along 6 Km inland as tall as a threestory
building, approximately 15 m height. Addressing
natural disaster, which is not uncertain and therefore an
approach to prevention measure is minimize impact.
PP 30/2005 [4 4 ] provides rehabilitation and preventive
measures, however, a detailed
plan has to be
conducted.
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J. Appl. Sci. Res., 3(10): 1037-1044, 2007
A hydraulic model could be used with an
assumption that roughness constant of coastal area with
greenspace is in the order of three times higher than
coastal area without greenspace (from various
hydraulics textbooks). Using Manning’s equation for
open channel hydraulics one could found greenspace
width of 700 m perpendicular to the coastline in order
to suppress the same wave height. However, the height
of tsunami wave could not be predicted, thus additional
space into 1 km is probably safe and indeed, the
greenspace area should cover along the coastline for
safety reason. The size of greenspace may be
completely destroyed during the event of tsunami that
is sacrificed instead of human A detai ed ana ysis for
th e c o a s ta
g r e e n s p a c e w a s p r o v id e d b y
Mangkoedihardjo [3 8 ].
Conclusions: T he above review is conducting the
subjects of phytotechnology as an integral part of
environmental sanitation. Phytotechnology integrity
provides nature-based technology to balance man-made
technology, focusing on reusing materials and nutrients.
Closing the materials loop is promising to conserve
environmental resources. It offers prevention method
for anthropogenic and natura disasters as well as
innovations for multidisciplinary of applied sciences
and multipurpose of sustainable development.
Phytotoxicology: Phytotoxicology describes an
assessment of negative effect of chemicals towards
living plants. This is an important and essential subject
in phytotechnology for treating wastewater, leachate,
compost use as well as environmental remediation. An
example of phytotoxicology application in wastewater
treatm e n t is g ive n b y M angko ed ihardjo [ 2 3 ,2 4 ] .
W astewater group I contains BOD and COD twice of
the group II. W astewater group II contains inorganic N,
Fe and Mn twice of the group I. Results are the
growth of number and leaves area for hyacinth in
wastewater containing more organic matter is twice
longer than hyacinth in wastewater containing inorganic
substances. Recently, Mangkoedihardjo [3 6 ] reports two
novel parameters for evapotranspiration-mediated
wastewater phytotreament. Leaf area capacity could be
used to measure the water loss from phytotreatment
tank. Relative effect concentration was a measure the
reduction of leaf area capacity due to increasing COD
level.
Additional advantage of using the two
parameters was to address the suitability of various
types of wastewater in phytotreatment by means of
COD equivalent.
Besides the treatment indicator, phytotoxicology is
useful in product quality assurance. Compost produced
from solid waste in particular may contain metals [2 6 ],
and therefore it requires toxicological assessment in
order to have safe compost for using in plantation.
Compost is not just valued by its maturity, but
also its toxicity. Predictive hazard assessment of
chemicals toward plant growth, that is ecotoxicological
study, has been intensively studied in response to
increasing environmental pollution. Several studies
have been conducted on the effect of chemicals
containing wastes towards plants growth, representing
potential function of plants to assess chemicals
hazards [1 1 ,5 7 ,6 6 ].
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The author wishes to thank and honor Sepuluh
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