The Study of Ages on Foreign Language Learning and Instruction

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The Study of Ages on Foreign Language Learning and Instruction
ZHANG Qingying, HAO Zhiping
School of Foreign Languages and Clutures, Xihua University, P.R.China, 610039
[email protected]
Abstract: By reviewing the literature of the effects of different ages on foreign language learning, it can
be concluded that different ages have different language learning effects on the learners’ learning rate
and efficiency, accuracy of pronunciation and native-speaker proficiency and the learners’ language
achievement. And the reasons can be explained from the biological, social, cognitive psychological
dimensions. The conclusions are as following: (1)The children have only the slight advantage on
listening and speaking; (2)Foreign language learning can not teach too early; (3)Adults have advantage
under the formal instruction circumstances. So foreign language teaching should make use of the age
advantages in strategy use and policy making.
Keywords: age difference, foreign language learning, foreign language instruction
1 Introduction
In recent years, the points from study of foreign language teaching have been changed. As we know, the
traditional foreign language teaching theories in China focused on how to teach foreign language, the
scholars emphasized about how to construct teaching material and design teaching methods, etc. Of
course, this does not mean that traditional teaching does not consider the factor of learners. Because of
the development of curricula, teaching methods design must be based on some language learning
theories and must take into account the characteristics of learners. With the development of second
language acquisition research, people gradually found their knowledge of the language learning process
is too simplistic, ignoring the real needs of learners. Individual Differences and the role of foreign
language learning have been fully realized. Many factors affect the foreign language learning, individual
differences in age as a research point; its role in foreign language learning is self-evident. The prevailing
view shows that children learn foreign language faster than adults, which could be considered that the
smaller age, the more advantage. This is based on children's language learning in the key period of
plasticity of neural function. Yet, various studies have found out many controversial conclusions. Many
researchers hold the opposing views. Snow, who has denied the findings of the critical period of
language learning, made the non-critical period hypothesis (Hatch 1983). Snow et al (1978) thought that
the study was consistent with the following two assumptions: (1) brain dominance from birth to five
years of age will be determined (Krashen 1973); (2) the inherent advantages of the brain, the
development of brain lateralization is only for used by children who joined various psychological tests.
Neuropsychological study also showed that the lateralization has been completed before puberty, and
some of the possible lateralization has been completed at age three. Later, some scholars proposed a
hypothesis called the sensitive period, it believes that many language skills in a certain stage of
development more easily than the other stages, and some language skills, although not easy, they could
be get after the critical period.
2 Analysis of Age Influence on Foreign Language Learning
2.1 The influence on study speed and rate
From the literature study, Krashen, Long and Scarcella (1979) reached the following conclusions: (1)
adult language acquisition in terms of the speed is better than children; (2) older children learn faster
than young children. These conclusions from the Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle (1978) supported the study,
they investigated English native speakers to acquisitive Dutch, and the subjects are children aged 8 to 10
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years old, 15-year-old adolescents and adults for ten months. The results are: in the morphology and
syntax, the youth learn best, followed by adults, children worst; in pronunciation, the difference is very
small; in the grammar, adults have an advantage when they start learning, but after that children catch up.
Other researchers' experimental studies have shown that adults start learning more easily than children.
So, in terms of learning speed, adult learners have an advantage at the beginning of study period. [1]
2.2 The influence on accuracy and authentic of pronunciation
This is the most controversial aspect. Newfield studied in 1978, he gave 20 English native speakers for
intensive training of Chinese and Japanese for 18 hours, then Chinese and Japanese native speakers
make judgments according to their imitating sounds, respectively, 9 and 8 learners are considered
pronounced as "native" level. Therefore, the conclusion is: If the conditions are right, adults can also get
close to the native level, even in pronunciation as well. And Coppieters’s (1987) further study points out
that although adults can achieve native phonetic level, their grammar of the language learners are
different. However, Birdsong has done similar studies found that there was no difference between
non-native language learners and native language learners, many non-native learners in the grammar
showed the same ability with native language learners. And Thompson (1991) in the study found two
children of four-year-old came to the United States still has a slight accent when they measured by a test.
These studies indicate that at least some of the young to start learning a foreign language after the key
period can achieve the same level of competence. [2]
2.3 The influence on learners’ language competence
Burstall (1975) compared the two groups of the second language learners in the formal learning
environment for five years, one group started to learn French from 8-year-old, another group did from
11-year-old, and she found that older children have "sustainable advantage." When comparing the two
groups in age, the learners who started language from middle school in speaking, reading and writing
are better than beginning learners from earlier, only in the listening test is poor. Harley (1986) of survey
in French bilingual children in Canada meets the language proficiency courses. She focused on the
learner's acquisition of the French verb system, through the data of interviews, story retelling and
translation to compare the early start and late start learners received after 1000 hours of the acquisition
learning, it could be obtained: The two groups are not fully grasp the verb system, but the older age
show the superiority. This shows that, in terms of language competence, older children than younger
children [3]. So why these differences do could occur? Experts have tried to explain in many ways, more
convincing ones are the following.
2.3.1 Biological dimension
Neurologist Penfield and Roberts believe that human life has a fixed period of time, language learning
can be natural and easy access to, and have a period after the acquisition is very difficult to complete
successfully their mother tongue, this is the "Critical Period hypothesis ". They believe that the best
period of learning language is ten years after birth, because this time the brain is highly malleable. In
1967, Lenneberg from a biological point of view, this period will be equated the brain "side of the period
(lateralization)", the so-called brain lateralization of language function is the left brain established
language in this period, the brain is still in development stage, with plasticity. Lenneberg believes that
through the "contact" (exposure), acquisition of any language can be the key to the development of a
2-year-old period (puberty). 2 years old do not have this ability for brain development not yet reached a
certain level, but after puberty, the brain has lost its original elasticity (plasticity). There is the latest
evidence of brain science to support of this hypothesis: 5 years ago, children of brain neurons is in a
relatively chaotic state. With increasing age, the brain needs nutrition (glucose) and the brain "circuits"
falls close to the adults. During this period the brain is to collate (pruning) of the period, which is
equaled of people talking about function of the original regional side of (lateralization) of the process.
Results from the current view, the specific age of termination of critical period is difficult to reach
consensus. Many researchers use "development period", but apparently this is a vague concept. We
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assume that the brain does have a brain function which is relatively regionalization process, but the
process is relatively slow. 5 years old may be the peak of finishing inside the brain, and then there is still
a buffer. In infants before the age of 2 years or 1 are non-normal developments, language functions are
gradually starting from zero state to the transition process. So that the critical period is actually a bit like
an irregular inverted V-shaped continuum, its beginning and ending boundaries are not sudden, sharp
(Shu, Chuang 2008) Figure 1:
Neurophysiologists found that the brain constitute
by two hemispheres, which connected together by
5 years old
the corpus callosum (corpus allosum), left and
right hemispheres have different functions,
respectively. Left hemisphere controls the right
2 years old
12 or 14 years old
half of the body, including the right hand, right arm
and right cheek, while the right hemisphere
Figure 1 Critical Period on Foreign Language Learning
opposite. According to the control of the body and
organs, there is always predominant hemisphere dominance, which is why some people prefer to use left
hand, meanwhile, the left and right hemispheres, each division, the left brain specifically to deal with the
language (Steinberg 1993). Some studies showed that children from injury or illness who damaged left
hemisphere language areas, there are still amazing ability to learn a language, while the adults left brain
damaged is not usually return to normal. Because children's brains is not over on the side of the brain's
language function at the development stage, with plasticity, the situation is different in adults, once the
left brain damaged they will appear the language barrier and even permanent loss of language skills .
This is not hard to explain to children who have learning language advantage. That is also why some
adults do achieve native levels? Bley-Vroman (1998) concluded that only those who achieved a high
level of language ability only are completely successful adults when learning a foreign language.
Because they use some explicit learning mechanism to avoid the hidden mechanism that is invalid
(children rely on implicit learning mechanism in the particular language learning). But the children are
chronically poor memory, brain link has not been established, the ability of abstract thinking has not yet
formed, who can not handle the complex language of form and deep content, so the beginning of the
learning speed will be affected.
2.3.2 Social dimension
Steinberg (1993) believes that the impact of social factors in second language acquisition mainly refers
to the environment in which to learn language, including the natural environment and classroom
environment. In the second language environment, second language acquisition in children is more
dominant than adults. With age, individuals tend to other social and cultural becoming smaller and
smaller. Adults because of cultural differences and barriers, do not want social integration, who be
accepted by less the possibility. Children are less susceptible to peer pressure; self-awareness did not
form a pattern of thought, so more likely to receive external information. On the other hand, children's
emotional barriers (affective filter) are not higher than adult, usually not too much as adults, so the
children are willing to practice using their language.
From this we can conclude that: Children in the ESL environment are natural "acquisition" language;
adults are self-restraint, suitable for the EFL environment, that is the classroom environment, which
taught by the guidance of teachers to "learn" language.
2.3.3 Cognitive dimension
Children are more conscious than adults, they understood language as a very formal system, and they
learn the language through a conscious understanding of language rules, by applying these rules to use
the language. For children, the language is just a tool to express their meaning, children see the
similarities of language, lack of flexibility in thinking, and self-centered, which happens to be a
prerequisite for automatic language acquisition, so that they knowledge of another language on the
"open" attitude. On the other hand, the cognitive level of children is limited, abstract thinking has not
yet formed, in learning a second language, they generally can not use their language rules monitor
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language output.
2.3.4 Psychological dimension
Steinberg (1993) believes that the impact of psychological factors in second language acquisition
including the processing of intelligence, memory and motor skills.
(1)Processing capacity of intelligence decided to the grammatical structure and rules. It is achieved in
two ways: an explanation or inductive. The former refers to the description of second language learners
to explain the structure and syntax rules, to understand the target language. Intellectual mature adults are
able to understand abstract and complex rules of grammar. Because cognitive ability and intelligence of
children is not high, can not accept this interpretation. The latter refers to the summary of the language
through self-discovery rules to master the language. the children before the "critical period", the innate
"Language Acquisition" plays a role, it makes children's processing of language material, formed in the
brain of the underlying abstract language system, and through contact with a large number of languages,
so that their language skills improved. Adults over a critical period, language acquisition recession,
become weak in summary of language ability than children. Therefore, the adults suit to learn the
explanation type of grammar; children are more in touch with second language, to accept natural
language input.
(2) Memory is essential for learning. If a person lost his memory, let alone a second language, and even
the mother language can not learn. "Memory is the past experience reflected in the human brain, but also
a reflection of human reality According to the information processing, input, storage, memory
language output are important parts of the course material, while all of the language memory effect
materials, an important factor "(Zhu, 1994). In the process of learning a second language, such as words,
phrases and vocabulary to memory are generally of mechanical memory. Mechanical memory ability of
children is stronger than adults. Children, aged 5 to 6, have the strongest of mechanical memory, with
age it weaken. Usually 8-year-old and 12-year-old were both reduced period. This was mainly due to
age changes, brain development and recession caused. From point of view of the storage, memory can
be divided into transient memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Adult have long-term
memory ability, but in the words, names and other material their memory is weaker than children.
Research on memory to tell us: the second language learning, for adults have conscious access and
opportunity to practice the language, for those who need to master the mechanical memory of words and
idioms to over and over, "long-term memory activities of short-term memory formation is due to the
accumulation of traces "(Zhu, 1994).
(3) Motor skills refer to capabilities of controlling vocal organs (such as the tongue, lips, jaw, vocal
cords, etc.) in learning a second language. According to Steinberg (1993), controlling of these organs,
motor skills began to decline 10 to 12 years old, although the reasons are not sure, it relate with the brain
function. So children learning a second language in sounds have an absolute advantage. This is why
many children of immigrant families have access to near-native speech, and their parents were foreign
language with a heavy accent. According to Gagne's theory (Huang, 1997), motor skills are a broad
knowledge, in terms of cognitive skills. Motor skill is an explicit action mode; cognitive skills are an
implicit operation thinking activities. We can make a conclusion: The best pronunciation learning is in
the early stage.
3 Age Factor on the Foreign Language Teaching
Critical Period Hypothesis and second language acquisition of children and adults have great significant
in language instruction and will apply these theories in practice, which can help language learners
improve learning methods, so that teachers work more efficiently.
3.1 Adults and children learning a foreign language should be emphasized respectively
Children learn the language should be natural "acquisition," which means before the critical period the
language acquisition mechanism (LAD) plays a dominant role in language learning, such as "learning"
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the words should focus on language learning, because of the flexibility of the vocal organs of children
and highly adaptability. They constantly receive language input and output, which will enable them to
play a good foundation in voice tone, rhythm and other aspects. Also children have great mechanical
memory ability, but adults suitable for classroom learning, who have the advantage of logical thinking
ability, cognitive ability, self-control and self-discipline. They also have a cultural knowledge. Adults'
learning focuses on grammatical structure, but also not over look the voice exercises. For the vocabulary
and idioms on the context, learning strategies (such as: association, imagination, old and new knowledge,
contacts, etc.) are sometimes used to enhance the memory.
3.2 On teaching foreign language to adults and children should be used different teaching methods
Teachers who teach children could use more activities, reading and writing are relatively less, for
example games. Language learning of children could also act as the theoretical basis of Behaviorisms,
by stimulating children to listen and speaking skills. Teaching children also base on the audio lingual
method, direct method and total physical response (TPR). Adult second language teaching, according to
the purpose of language learning could have a different focus, in general, translation method,
communicative approach is appropriate. Learners should also be paid attention to the cultivation of
learning strategies and methods so that they are aware of their own learning and control.
4 Conclusion
Generally believed that the sooner the better to learn a second language. In China, children learning
English incessantly in a boom. Many parents hope children to become useful eager but to blindly send
their children to learn English, some children were only four, five years old, who even the Chinese can
not speak, let alone sitting in a classroom to learn other language. In practice, the majority of children
start to learn English and progress rapidly, also can learn some dialogue. However, further learning, they
often stay in the initial level, it is difficult to improve. This may be because of the beginners, a simple
mechanical imitation, repetition will achieve a certain effect, but further exposure to more complex
sentences, their logical thinking and cognitive abilities will not be able to deal with. At present, although
no experimental studies have shown how to when to learn a foreign language, there is one thing can be
sure that foreign language learning is not the sooner the better. Only when the child's brain language
area develops to a certain level of cognitive ability, then is the best foreign language learning period.
Age of foreign language acquisition remains need to be studied further.
Author in brief:
Zhang Qingying, (1986- ), Female, Born in Longyan City, Fujian Province, A Postgraduate in Xihua
University, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, the direction of research: English Teaching Methodology.
Hao Zhiping, Female, Professor, Postgraduate Supervisor in Xihua University, Chengdu, Sichuan
Province, the direction of research: English Teaching Methodology.
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