INTRODUCTION CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
sanitation, waste management etc.) has not
been increasing at a rate commensurate to
urbanization. Surmounting deficits are
growing particularly acute in sub-urban
sprawls and inner-city squatter settlements,
where it is the poor who are the most
vulnerable. Water pollution in the urban
environment has had the severest impact on
human health in Southeast Asia (World Bank
1998), and eutrophication presents one of the
most serious problems of the subregion. For
example, there is evidence that the rivers of
Metro Manila can be considered biologically
dead as a result of discharges of industrial
(30 per cent) and domestic (70 per cent)
effluent. During recent years, the incidence of
water-borne diseases caused by contaminated
water has been widespread, as well as the
diseases caused by mosquitoes (that breed in
stagnant water) such as dengue and malaria.
Data for Indonesia and the Philippines show
that 77 per cent and 56 per cent respectively, of
the urban populations of those countries are
connected to piped water (WRI 1999). As for
flush toilets, recent data is only available for
urban Philippines which shows that 37 per cent
have such sanitation facilities (WRI 1999).
Figure 17.1 provides data on the connection of
some major Southeast Asian cities to basic
services such as electricity, water and sewage.
It demonstrates that the cities have a high
percentage of their populations connected to
water supplies, but that connections to a
sewerage system lag far behind.
Deforestation and biodiversity loss Continuing
exploitation of forests and other habitats is
INTRODUCTION
The Southeast Asian subregion comprises the
countries of Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia,
Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
and Viet Nam. The subregion remains very diverse
in terms of economic development, political systems,
ethnicity, culture, and natural resources. Singapore,
for example, is an OECD country and Brunei
Darusslam, and oil-rich microstate. Myanmar, Lao
People’s Democratic Republic, and Cambodia are
essentially agrarian economies, while Malaysia,
Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Viet Nam
are rapidly industrializing. The diversity of the region
is also reflected in the Human Development Index of
its member countries, which range through high to
medium to low. The region has witnessed sharp
economic growth and subsequent sharp decline
following the financial crisis in 1997. Consequently,
there have been great variations in GDP per capita in
the subregion. Over the past decade this has ranged
from about US$250 in Viet Nam to US31 900 in
Singapore, with average growth rates up to 1996 in
the range of 6-7 per cent. Both the Asian
Development Bank (ADB) and the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) agree, however, that the
prospects for economic recovery look positive from
the beginning of 2000.
Southeast Asia is home to about half of the
world’s terrestrial and marine biodiversity, which in
the tropical forest of the subregion remains largely
undocumented (World Bank 1992). Around 30 per
cent of the world’s coral reefs are situated within the
subregion, with the seas around the Philippines,
Indonesia, and Malaysia constituting the centre of
marine biodiversity. Some of the last remaining intact
expanses of mangroves also occur in Southeast Asia.
Table 17.1 provides a summary of the key
environmental issues and their causes in Southeast
Asia.
Figure 17.1 Share of Selected Southeast Asia Urban
Household’s Connection to Basic
Services
Hanoi
SHARED ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The rapid economic development of recent
years has led to a number of shared environmental
problems in the region. These include diminishing
forests; altered habitats and decreasing biodiversity;
land degradation; polluted waters and declining
availability of potable water; and the degradation of
marine and coastal resources.
In prioritizing shared environmental concerns
in the subregion, the most important are:
Deficient urban infrastructure The capacity
of urban infrastructure (water supply and
354
Metro Manila
Vientiane
Jakarta
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Per cent
Water
Source:
WRI 1999
Electricity
Sewage
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Table 17.1 Key Environmental Issues and Causes in Southeast Asia
Country
Key Issue
Key Causes
Brunei Darussalam
Seasonal smoke and haze
Transboundary pollution from forest fires in neighbouring
countries.
Cambodia
Soil erosion; sedimentation; water pollution, deforestation;
loss of biodiversity – threats to natural fisheries.
Unmanaged waste and effluent discharge into Tonlesap lake;
destruction of mangrove swamplands through extensive
industrial and aquacultural development.
Indonesia
Deforestation; loss of biodiversity; water pollution; air
pollution in urban areas; national and transboundary
seasonal smoke and haze; land degradation; pollution of
Malacca straits.
Deficiencies in urban infrastructure – unmanaged industrial
wastes and municipal effluents and waste; vehicular
congestion and emissions; extensive land clearance and forest
fires for pulp wood and oil palm production; extensive and
unmanaged mining activities; national and transboundary
industrial pollution (from Singapore and Malaysia); tourist
developments in coastal regions beyond existing carrying
capacity.
Lao PDR
Deforestation; loss of biodiversity; soil erosion; limited
access to potable water; water-borne diseases prevalent.
Land clearance; shifting cultivation; inadequate water supply
and sanitation infrastructure.
Malaysia
Urban air pollution; water pollution; deforestation; loss
of biodiversity; loss of mangrove habitats; national and
transboundary smoke/haze.
Vehicular congestion and emissions; deficiencies in urban
infrastructure – industrial and municipal effluents; extensive
land clearance and forest fires for pulp wood and oil palm
production; unmanaged coastal developments; tourist
developments in coastal regions beyond existing carrying
capacity
Myanmar
Deforestation; loss of biodiversity urban air pollution; soil
erosion; water contamination and water-borne diseases
prevalent.
Land clearance; excessive mineral extraction; vehicular
congestion and emissions; deficiencies in urban infrastructure
– unmanaged industrial and municipal effluents.
Philippines
Deforestation in watershed areas; loss of biodiversity; soil
erosion; air and water pollution in Manila leading to
waterborne disease; pollution of coastal mangrove
habitats; natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods.
Illegal forest cutting; land clearance; rapid urbanization and
deficiencies in urban infrastructure – unmanaged industrial
and municipal effluents, inadequate water supply and
sanitation; tourist developments in coastal regions beyond
existing carrying capacity;
Singapore
Industrial pollution; limited natural fresh water resources;
waste disposal problems.
Seasonal smoke/haze; limited land availability for waste
disposal.
Thailand
Deforestation; loss of biodiversity; land degradation and
soil erosion; shortage of water resources in dry season
and flooding in rainy season; conflict of water users;
coastal degradation and loss of mangrove habitat; urban
air pollution; pollution from solid waste, hazardous
materials and hazardous waste.
Non-strategic and sporadic developments and destruction
of critical watersheds; unmanaged aquaculture
developments; growth in tourist industries exceeding growth
in tourism carrying capacity; deficiencies in urban and rural
infrastructure, particularly central draining – freshwater
resources being polluted by domestic and industrial wastes
and sewage runoff.
Viet Nam
Deforestation and soil degradation; loss of biodiversity;
loss of mangrove habitat; water pollution and threats to
marine life; groundwater contamination; limited potable
water supply; natural disasters such as floods.
Land clearance for industrial zones; extensive aquaculture
and overfishing; growing urbanization and infrastructure
deficiencies – inadequate water supply and sanitation,
particularly in major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh.
Source:
WRI/GEF/UNDP/IMO 1997; APEC 1997; Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority et al 1995
impacting severely on biodiversity in Southeast
Asia. The three largest forest areas per capita
are in Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
Brunei Darussalam, and Malaysia, while the
highest proportion of rainforests are situated
in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.
Latest available figures show an average
deforestation rate in the region of 1.8 per cent
(WRI 1999), rendering a total loss of original
forest cover of around 2.4 million hectares
between 1990 and 1997 (Schweithelm 1999).
Highest loss rates were in the Philippines,
Thailand and Malaysia, and the principal cause
was logging, shifting cultivation, and
conversion to plantations.
Degradation of the marine environment
Coastal and marine resources in the subregion
suffer from a high degree of stress due to
overfishing, destructive fishing methods (blast
fishing and use of cyanide which contributes
to the decimation of coral reefs), siltation from
soil erosion, marine-based and inland water
pollution, and the destruction of mangroves
for shrimp ponds and aquaculture. Population
355
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Table 17.2 Projected Coastal Populations
Countries
Brunei Darussalam
Population in Coastal Urban
Agglomerations (Thousands)
1980
2000
N/A
N/A
Cambodia
50
287
Indonesia
29 166
58 303
Malaysia
3 997
9 158
Myanmar
3 923
7 695
Philippines
17 736
37 181
Singapore
2 414
2 960
Thailand
5 698
13 541
Viet Nam
Total
Source:
5 585
14 317
70 549
143 442
WRI 1994 and 1995
growth and unplanned and sporadic coastal
developments are also posing serious
implications to coastal and marine resources.
Table 17.2 shows the rate of increase of coastal
population between 1980 and 2000. The
subregion also shares the Coral Bleaching
problems experienced in South Asia (see
Chapter 16, Box 16.2).
Forest fires The indiscriminate clearing of land
for pulpwood and oil palm plantations is
fuelled by the high demand for paper and palm
oil products throughout the world. The
traditional way of clearing land in most of the
Southeast Asia subregion is by fire. The activity
has led to devastating cross border impacts to
habitat corridors, and has caused significant
transboundary air pollution problems with
particulates, smoke, and haze. The haze from
forest fires that engulfed Indonesia, Malaysia,
Brunei Darussalam, and to a lesser extent the
Philippines, in mid 1997, and intermittently
hereafter, have been observed as some of the
worst episodes of air pollution in recent world
history.
Atmospheric pollution Data for air pollution
levels in each Southeast Asian country are not
available. However, the high concentration of
industries in the urban centres of the region
especially in the two largest cities of Metro
Manila and Jakarta, indicate the high
air-pollution potential. Vehicular emissions,
particularly in Jakarta, Bangkok and Metro
Manila, also contribute largely to the poor
ambient air quality of these cities. However,
since the 1997 financial decline traffic
congestion in the major cities has also been
reduced. For example, between 1996 and 1999
356
automotive production in Thailand fell by
55 per cent and sales fell 63 per cent (Brown
1999). Nevertheless, growth trends in air
pollution are being observed in many cities,
for example, Malaysia’s urban centres have not
yet reached critical levels of air pollution
although traffic congestion and consequent
vehicular emissions is fast becoming a problem
in Kuala Lumpur and elsewhere.
Land degradation The subregion suffers from
soil erosion and contamination. For Southeast
Asian countries, erosion mostly takes the form
of surface water erosion, which contributes to
the loss of topsoil (Lynden and Oldeman 1997).
Problems are most acute in the Philippines,
Thailand, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Indonesia,
Cambodia, and Lao People’s Democratic
Republic, where water erosion impacts an
average of 20 per cent of the total land areas.
Thailand, Cambodia and Myanmar also suffer
from the impacts of land contamination, where
soil fertility declines have affected a total of
36.5 million hectares (Lynden and Oldeman
1997).
CAUSES
Before 1997, Southeast Asia was already
experiencing the environmental costs resulting from
the ‘grow now, clean later’ development policies of
the period. Respective governments, influenced by
civil society, had started action to address
environmental issues and cooperate toward dealing
with the region’s key environmental problems, which
were principally associated with the drive of
globalization and trade pressures, coupled with fast
track developments and inefficient resource
consumption. However, the economic crisis of the
1990s significantly reduced the force of environmental
efforts already underway (World Bank 1998).
External development drivers are also
compounded by the internal pressures of population
growth and poverty. The total land area of the
Southeast Asia subregion is more than 435 million
hectares, representing about 3 per cent of the total
land surface of the earth, although the region is home
to about 520 million people, or about 11 per cent of
the world population. The average population has
been growing at a rate of 1.5 per cent, representing
the second highest growth rate in the Asian and
Pacific Region. An average of 39 per cent of the
population is urban, and urbanization is growing at
3.5 per cent. Projections indicate that by 2150, there
will be three megacities (with population of more
than 10 million) in Southeast Asia: Jakarta, Manila,
SOUTHEAST ASIA
and Bangkok. In summary, the region’s major
socio-economic indicators are provided in Table 17.3.
POLICY RESPONSE
A.
National Initiatives
Many national initiatives have been undertaken
by the governments of Southeast Asia with a view to
achieving environmentally sustainable development.
Amongst these are the creation of institutions,
development of legislation, use of economic
instruments, and development of links with the
private sector. A number of common limitations are,
however, observed in relation to achieving sustainable
development in the subregion.
Policy Although there are often confusing and
fast changing jurisdictions of government
agencies, the environmental policy initiatives
of the region are moderately advanced and
adequate numbers of institutions and
mechanisms exist for their implementation.
National Environmental Action Plans have
been developed for many of the Southeast
Asian countries, and cooperation and
coordination of policy responses is also active.
What is often lacking, however, is the capacity
to implement and deliver on policy targets and
ideals, which can be restrained through budget
limitations and weak bureaucratic processes.
Moreover, market based instruments remain in
operation in a number of countries that do not
account for environmental impacts, and indeed
in many cases encourage non-sustainable
activities. This is a salient feature in respect to
the extent of aquaculture developments, and
the leverage potential of ‘fast grow’ cultivation
subsidy initiatives involving forest clearance.
Legal A common observation in the region is
that there is sufficient legislation in place to
protect the environment but enforcement has
been weak or non-existent in many cases.
Command and control mechanisms are fairly
advanced, though many countries lack either
monitoring capacity or enforcement actions.
For example, the regular sound of explosions
is evident due to blast fishing in certain areas,
although the practice is officially illegal.
Furthermore, while the clearing of forest areas
by fire was outlawed by the Indonesian
Government immediately following the
1997/98 devastation, the recurrence of the fires
in August 1999 showed the practise still to exist.
Industrial
The regions industry has
traditionally focused on forestry and marine
products, driven by the increasing global
demand. Chief exports include tropical
hardwoods, live fish, crustacea, and
‘ornamental’ and ‘medicinal’ animal products.
Live fish may be sold for between twice and
twenty five times the price of dead fish, and
thus represent an extremely lucrative trade.
However, the fishing method preferred for live
catches by local fishermen is that of cyanide
poisoning, posing significant chronic pollution
problems (particularly to coral habitats) in
coastal and inland waters (APEC 1997).
Meanwhile, although modern industrial
developments are adopting environmental
management practices, and in many cases
working toward international environmental
accreditation, such approaches are restricted to
large or even international conglomerates. It
would appear that the SME sector remains
reluctant through either perceived constraints
of inaffordability or capacity deficits.
NGO The concept of public consultation in
decision making is at an early stage of
development in most countries of Southeast
Asia. The institutional framework therefore
remains somewhat ad hoc, and the NGO
community marginal. Furthermore, the process
of advertising development proposals to project
stakeholders, for example, can be constrained
by minimal distribution and readership
of rural and/or regional media. However,
autonomous municipalities, including people’s
representative committees at the local and
district levels form the administrative
structures of many of the Southeast Asian
countries. District committee leaders are
themselves usually members of the local
population, and are consequently viewed as
sharing a firm understanding of local issues
and concerns. Imaginative usage of this
existing framework may present the subregion
with some potentially strong foundations
for involving the public in the region’s
environmental decision making.
B.
Subregional Cooperation
Southeast Asian countries have a long history
of cooperation on environmental issues and concerns,
dating back to the first subregional environment
programme in 1977 (ASEP I). The programme was
further endorsed by Southeast Asian Governments
at the first subregional Ministerial Meeting on the
Environment, which was held in Manila in 1981. This
assisted in the development and implementation of
two further ASEPs, namely ASEP II (1982-1987), and
ASEP III (1988-1992). The significant levels of
357
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Table 17.3 Major Socio-Economic Indicators for Southeast Asian Countries
Countries
Brunei Darussalam
Population
(2000)
(thousands)
Annual growth
Population
rate in
density (person
population (%)
per km2)
Urban
population
as % of total
Annual growth
rate (%)
(2000)
Total GNP
(US$ Millions)
1998
Per capita
GNP (US$)
1998
339
2.4
60
72
2.7
–
–
Cambodia
12 227
2.4
65
16
4.4
2 945
260
Indonesia
640
212 107
1.3
112
41
3.9
130 600
Lao PDR
5 433
2.6
22
24
5.0
1 583
320
Malaysia
23 171
2.0
68
57
3.1
81 311
3 670
Myanmar
48 785
1.8
68
28
2.7
–
–
Philippines
75 967
2.0
252
59
3.4
78 938
1 050
Singapore
4 146
3.5
5 186
100
3.5
95 453
30 170
Thailand
62 320
1.0
120
31
2.4
131 916
2 160
Viet Nam
79 832
1.4
235
24
3.6
26 535
350
Source:
1. World Bank 1999 and 2000
2. ESCAP 2000
3. United Nations 1998
subregional cooperation have stemmed from the
realization that environmental problems, especially
those that require long-term and difficult solutions,
could be better addressed by collaborative efforts
through the sharing of knowledge and the pooling
of resources. Such unified positions on international
environmental issues of common interest have also
allowed the subregion to be vocal and effective in
international fora. Opportunities for cooperation are
presently promoted through three principal means:
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) Senior Officials on the Environment
(ASOEN);
Other Subregional Cooperation Programmes;
and
International Programmes and Projects.
1.
ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment
(ASOEN)
ASOEN was established in 1989, and is
composed of Permanent Secretaries who serve as
national chairs or focal points for the coordination of
all environment programmes in the subregion.
Members meet annually and are assisted by three
working groups targeting the issues of, conservation;
the marine environment; multilateral environment
agreements; and a task force on haze. Cooperation
was again enhanced in 1994 by the Bandar Seri
Begawan Resolution on Environment and
Development, which not only allowed for the
harmonization of the region’s environmental air and
water quality standards, but also led to the
development of the ASOEN Strategic Plan for Action
on the Environment.
358
(a)
ASOEN Strategic Plan for Action on the
Environment (1994-1998)
The plan consisted of five objectives, ten
strategies, and twenty-seven actions. A number of
achievements have been made during the plan’s
implementation period. These include for example,
the adoption of the Cooperation Plan on
Transboundary Pollution in 1995, addressing
atmospheric pollution, movements of hazardous
wastes, and, transboundary shipborne pollution
(in-line with GATT principles). The plan also
facilitated the development of a Regional Haze Action
Plan, following the 1997 forest fires. Under this plan,
a technical Task Force was developed chaired by
Indonesia, and comprising officials from Brunei
Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore.
Other important achievements in regional
cooperation activities under the plan were the
establishment of a Regional Centre for Biodiversity
Conservation in the Philippines (see Box 17.1), and
the promotion of an integrated framework for the
management of Southeast Asia’s coastal zones.
(b)
ASOEN Strategic Plan for Action on the
Environment (1999-2004)
The current plan consists of the key activities
to be implemented by ASOEN and its supporting
bodies over the five-year period. This period includes
the likely ratification of the ASEAN Agreement on
Transboundary Haze Pollution, following its
discussion at an expert working group in May 2000
(see Box 17.2). Programmes relating to the protection
of biodiversity are also being progressed, including
the protection of heritage parks and reserves, and
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Box 17.1 ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC)
The subregion contains some of the richest and yet most threatened biodiversity in the world. The region contains four major
biodiversity “hot spots” and 36 out of a global total of 221 Endemic Bird Areas (see Chapter 3). Indonesia is ranked as one of the top
five countries in the world for biological richness and contains more than 15 per cent of all vertebrate species. The marine areas of
the region are also the richest in the world.
ARCBC is being established under a European Union (EU) and ASEAN cooperation project to promote biodiversity conservation
in the subregion. Its activities will include capacity building; research; training; networking; raising of awareness; collation and
analysis of information; data sharing; technological exchange; improved data management procedures; adoption of ASEAN standards;
and, formulation of the ASEAN framework on access to genetic resources. ARCBC will serve as a central focal point for the
elaboration and coordination of a regional permanent network through National Biodiversity Reference Units (NBRUs) located in
the ASEAN countries, maintaining and intensifying the links established by the project beyond the duration of European Union (EU)
support.
A regional approach will be promoted by the ARCBC in addressing the major problems of loss of forest cover and other natural
habitats; weak protection of biodiversity resources; overuse of biodiversity resources; pollution of natural habitats; loss of endemic
species; and loss of agricultural biodiversity through abandoning of old crop varieties. A regional approach is needed simply
because species and ecosystem distributions do not follow national boundaries.
Source:
ASEAN Secretariat Jakarta
Box 17.2 ASEAN Combat Against Forest Fires in Indonesia
Health threatening smog caused by forest fires in Kalimantan, Indonesia, spread through Southeast Asia during 1997. Estimates
have suggested that the smog caused US$4.4 billion in damage and wiped out 5 million hectares of forest, agricultural land, and
bush land, equivalent in size to Costa Rica. About 80 per cent of the fires that burnt agricultural land, grassland and rainforest in
Indonesia since 1997 are blamed on large owners who illegally used fire to clear unwanted vegetation, however these allegations
have not been proven.
A meeting of the subregional Ministers Transboundary Haze Pollution, was convened as the main intergovernmental body to
plan, organize meetings, establish funds and coordinate regional activities. Since then, the Ministers have set up a special fund to
finance the fight against the forest fires. Support has been solicited from donors like the United States, United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), and other nations and organizations. At the 4th meeting of the Ministers held in Singapore on June 19, 1998,
Indonesia proposed an aerial surveillance plan, which would enable fire-fighters to spot fires early and to take prompt attention to
check their spread. Along with the Indonesian proposal came a Malaysian offer of providing expertise and training and a pledge
from Singapore to provide the necessary communication equipment for the immediate transmission of information to agencies on
the ground. Communications between the relevant agencies at the provincial and district levels in Sumatra are also given high
considerations. In July 1999, Southeast Asian environment ministers came up with a more comprehensive plan to stop forest fires
through a coordinated fire – prevention campaign. The plan piloted in Indonesia included education, fire prevention, fire-fighting,
an surveillance techniques. Southeast Asian countries have agreed to strictly enforce and develop laws against open burning on
their land. Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam, as a result, adopted a legal sanction called the “presumptive clauses” which presumes
or apprehends a landowner to be responsible when a fire breaks out in his or her property.
Combating forest fires in Indonesia is a continuous action locally and regionally, which necessitates further cooperation,
pooling of more financial resources, provision of adequate communication and satellite technologies, and training. The efforts of the
subregion’s governments to avert a recurrence of disaster-level blazes also calls for change in forest policy and greater public
cooperation in fire prevention and fire-fighting campaigns.
Source:
Jakarta Post, June 20, 1998; Business World, July 8, 1998; and http://www.idn.org/news/0698/df062398-5.htm
the adoption and implementation of the ASEAN
Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and
Sustainable Management of Water Resources.
The latter is mostly focusing on developing
cooperative approaches to key international
environmental agreements and Agenda 21.
Publication of Southeast Asia’s State of Environment
Report is also taking place under the education and
awareness raising initiative.
2.
Other Subregional Cooperation Programmes and
Projects
(a)
The Mekong River Commission
The Mekong River Commission is an intergovernmental cooperation initiative responsible for
coordination in the use and development of water
resources in the Lower Mekong Basin. The
Commission’s present membership includes
359
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
Thailand, and Viet Nam. Programme activities
encompass both policy and planning and technical
support, including data collection and resource
development.
(b)
Greater Mekong Programme
The Greater Mekong Programme was
established for the promotion of economic
cooperation among the countries of the Greater
Mekong subregion, including Cambodia, People’s
Republic of China, Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam. It is an ADB
funded initiative focused on: harmonization of
environmental standards and legislation; capacity
building for environmental management planning
and assessment; and, technology transfer.
(c)
Subregional Projects
A number of independent subregional
environmental projects are also underway. These
include, for example, conservation of turtle habitats
by the Philippines and Malaysia under the Turtle
Islands Heritage Protected Heritage programme;
cross-border cooperation in the management of a
national park between Kalimantan in Indonesia, and
Sarawak in Malaysia; and, the potential future
development of a ‘forest ecoregion’ bordering
Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao People’s Democratic
Republic.
3.
International Programmes and Projects
Bilateral and multilateral projects and
programmes are also contributing to the subregion’s
sustainable development objectives. A significant
number of projects are either planned or underway
targeting the region’s land and marine resources.
Projects include:
Coastal Resources Management Project
(USAID);
Red Tides and Living Coastal Resources
Management projects (AIDAB);
Assessment of Marine Pollution by Heavy
Metals (CIDA);
Metropolitan Environment Programme
(World Bank);
Regional Study on Global Environmental Issues
(ADB);
Promotion of Market-Based Instruments for
Environmental Management (ADB);
360
Forest Fires Monitoring and Warning Systemsvarious (UNEP, GEF, DANIDA, USAID);
Coastal and Marine Environment Management
Information Systems (UNEP, ADB);
Protection of the Greater Mekong Subregionvarious initiatives (ADB, USAID); and,
Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation
(EU) (see Box 17.1).
SUBREGIONAL OUTLOOK
Southeast Asian countries have a very strong
history of environmental cooperation. A major
challenge for the subregion is therefore the
continuation and development of cooperation and
coordination initiatives, whilst balancing economic
development perspective with long-term
environmental goals and responsibilities. Economic
growth has had its rewards in rising incomes, literacy
and life expectancy, but at the same time it has greatly
diminished the region’s natural capital and destroyed
valuable habitats and biological diversity. Future
development will need to be guided through the
reform of economic policies in such a way that they
conserve natural capital, and maintain and protect
conservation areas; joint subregional management of
shared stocks will also be a priority. For example,
concrete activities will be required to reverse the
unfavourable trends in the erosion of forest resources,
and cooperation in the management of coastal areas
and marine fisheries will also be essential to prevent
threats to food security and livelihoods within some
Southeast Asian countries. The coordination and
sustainable management of tourism is also a high
priority. The World Bank estimates the cost of
Southeast Asia’s environmental degradation to be
about five per cent of its GDP. It also estimates the
cost of pollution abatement per life saved at
US$1 000 or less (World Bank 1998). In light of this,
a number of countries in the region are at stages in
the development of their economies where the
introduction of technology and capacity for pollution
prevention and abatement in parallel to command
and control will be key. Furthermore, major steps to
significantly increase the efficiency of resource
consumption per unit of output, the region’s
economic development will be short-lived, and at
the increasing cost of the environment.