Strengthening National Mechanisms for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women:

Strengthening National Mechanisms for Gender Equality
and the Empowerment of Women:
Regional Study – Asia and the Pacific
May 2010
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ST/ESCAP/2609
Copyright © United Nations, Bangkok 2010
All rights reserved
Social Development Division
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
United Nations Building
Rajadamnern Nok Avenue
Bangkok 10200 Thailand
E-mail: [email protected]
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CONTENTS
Chapter
I.
Page
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................
5
CONTEXT FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON NATIONAL MECHANISMS....
6
A. Traditional Gender Roles....................................................................................
6
B. Economic Context ..............................................................................................
7
C. Political Context................................................................................................. 12
II.
THE EVOLUTION OF NATIONAL MECHANISMS ........................................ 13
A. Responses to International Conventions and Declarations................................... 14
B. Critical Events in States...................................................................................... 15
C. Constitutional and Legislative Reforms on Gender Equality ............................... 16
D. Executive and Legislative Reforms for Gender Mainstreaming........................... 17
E. Donor Concerns for Gender Equality.................................................................. 18
F. Women’s Non-governmental Organizations and Women’s Rights Advocates..... 18
III.
PROFILE OF NATIONAL MECHANISMS........................................................ 19
A. Mandates of National Mechanisms ..................................................................... 19
B. Structures of National Mechanisms .................................................................... 19
C. Type and Location of National Mechanisms ....................................................... 20
D. Other Mechanisms for Gender Equality.............................................................. 21
E. Roles and Functions of National Mechanisms..................................................... 21
F. Gender Focal Points ........................................................................................... 25
G. Roles of Other National Mechanisms for Gender Equality.................................. 26
H. Roles of Women’s Organizations ....................................................................... 27
I. Regional Mechanisms ........................................................................................ 28
J. Composition of National Mechanisms ................................................................ 29
K. Resources for Gender Mainstreaming ................................................................. 30
IV.
MAIN AREAS OF FOCUS OF NATIONAL MECHANISMS............................ 33
A. Priority Issues..................................................................................................... 33
B. Globalization, Poverty and Economic Opportunities........................................... 34
C. Migration and Trafficking .................................................................................. 35
D. Violence Against Women................................................................................... 36
E. Women and Natural Disaster Management ......................................................... 37
F. Partnership with Non-governmental Organizations and Civil Society ................. 38
G. Implementation of Other Concerns in the Beijing Platform for Action................ 38
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V.
INSTRUMENTS FOR ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITY............................. 40
A. Millennium Development Goals ......................................................................... 40
B. Gender Information and Sex-Disaggregated Data ............................................... 40
C. Gender Sensitization and Capacity-Building....................................................... 41
D. Legislation Promoting Gender Equality .............................................................. 42
E. Gender Budgets.................................................................................................. 43
VI.
COLLABORATIVE MECHANISMS FOR GENDER EQUALITY................... 45
A. Single Mechanisms Linked Vertically ................................................................ 45
B. Mechanisms with Horizontal and Vertical Linkages ........................................... 45
C. Channels of Collaboration and Information Exchange ........................................ 48
VII.
KEY AREAS OF SUCCESS, GAINS AND ACHIEVEMENTS.......................... 49
A. Increased Capacity of Mechanisms to Mainstream Gender ................................. 49
B. Inclusive and Holistic Approaches to the Promotion of Gender Equality ............ 51
C. Efforts to End Discrimination against Women .................................................... 54
D. Increased Public Awareness and Support for Gender Equality ............................ 57
VIII. LIMITATIONS AND GAPS.................................................................................. 58
A. Analytic Framework........................................................................................... 58
B. Focus of Mandates and Functions....................................................................... 58
C. Structures, Resources, Processes and Measures .................................................. 59
D. Lack of Implementation of Women’s Rights and Gender Equality Goals............ 61
IX.
CONCLUSION: REMAINING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES ....... 62
A. Sustained Action for Gender Equality................................................................. 62
B. Political Will ...................................................................................................... 63
Annexes
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................... 65
TABLE 1................................................................................................................................... 73
APPENDIX............................................................................................................................... 74
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Introduction
This paper was commissioned by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for
Asian and the Pacific as part of a global project entitled “Strengthening National Mechanisms
for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women”. The project is a joint project
between the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women and the five United
Nations Regional Commissions. It aims to strengthen collaborations and synergies between
different mechanisms at national levels to facilitate the goals of gender equality and the
empowerment of women. Towards this end, the regional study on Asia and the Pacific has
been prepared in order to identify main trends and processes in the development of the
national mechanisms for the advancement of women within the region.
In this study, the term ”national mechanisms for gender equality” is understood to include
those bodies and institutions within different branches of the State (legislative, executive and
judicial branches) as well as independent, accountability and advisory bodies that together are
recognized as “national mechanisms for gender equality” by all stakeholders.
The countries covered by this study are ESCAP member States, with the exception of those
covered by other regional reports, such as the countries of Central Asia, the Russian
Federation and Turkey. The report covers 48 countries belonging to four subregions: North
and North-East Asia, South-East Asia, South and South-West Asia, and the Pacific (see table
1)1.
The paper starts with an analysis of contextual factors that influence the formation, functions,
and directions of national mechanisms. Context factors may ensue from economic, cultural,
political, social and institutional trends in the Asia and the Pacific region. Against this
background, an analysis of the different types of mechanisms for gender equality and
women’s empowerment which have been established at the national level since 1995 is made.
Their main areas of focus, instruments and processes are described in order to increase
understanding of priorities and strategies for strengthened collaboration and synergies
between mechanisms for gender equality and women’s empowerment, within and across
subregions. The key areas of action of the national mechanisms are analysed further in terms
of their successes, limitations, gaps, potentials and remaining challenges.
1
Unless otherwise indicated, the sources of country information are the responses to two separate
questionnaires: one questionnaire on the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and
the outcome document of the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly circulated to all ESCAP
member States as preparation for the regional review and appraisals in the context of the fifteenth anniversary of
the adoption of the Beijing Platform for Action in 2010; and one questionnaire prepared for the collection of
information and data to support the regional studies on national mechanisms for gender equality circulated to all
ESCAP member States in 2009.
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I. Context Factors that Impinge on National Mechanisms
The Asia and the Pacific region is characterized by extreme variations and polarities in
cultural, economic, social and political features. It is home to diverse ethnic and demographic
groups. While there are countries which have attained robust economic growth, others are
struggling economically. Democratization has advanced significantly in some areas, but
militarization, ethnic and intercountry conflicts continue in others. Many countries have made
rapid strides in health, education, information and communications, but there are still
countries where indicators for these factors remain problematic. The impacts of globalization
on women have been double-edged, and are implicated in issues of poverty, migration and
human trafficking. Women’s vulnerability in the face of natural disasters has increased, often
resulting in displacement, unexpected economic responsibilities, trafficking, violence and
other human rights violations.
A. Traditional gender roles
Asia is one region where culture and tradition play an important role, affecting almost every
aspect of life. The family is given importance, often within the context of traditional
definitions and differentiations of gender roles for women and men. These patterns are
evident in the developing nations of the ESCAP region, but are also seen in the industrialized
nations of East Asia (Inoguchi and Newman, 1997).
In South Asia, patriarchy, seclusion, and the power of the family to exercise social control
over male and female activities mean that most women are unaware of their rights and lack
the means to realize them (Heerah, 2006; Frankl, 2004). India, for instance, has some of the
oldest and most active women’s organizations in the region, which have been able to
successfully advocate for the passage of laws to protect women’s rights. However, the
Government has often been unable to enforce these laws, especially in rural areas where
traditions are deeply rooted. Thus, laws relating to the ownership of assets and land have
accorded women little control over land use, retention, or sale in most places (OneWomen
2009).
In South-East Asia, traditional definitions of gender roles continue to persist. For instance,
behaviour norms for Cambodian women, known as Chba’p, constrain their ability to access
opportunities outside of the household (UNIFEM, 2004). In Timor-Leste, a dominant
patriarchal system delegates different functions and responsibilities to men and women. As a
result, there has been less investment in the education of girls as compared to boys and
women have lower participation rates in the workforce. Furthermore, many women do not
participate in decision-making processes, especially in politics.
In the Pacific, the progress of national plans for women and gender equality is significantly
hampered by stereotypical attitudes and values of both women and men with regard to their
gender roles. In Tuvalu, for instance, the status of women is determined by their roles as
wives and mothers, and on how they obey and respect the norms of Tuvalu society (Kofe,
2006). New Zealand, however, holds the distinction of having been the first country in the
world to grant women the right to suffrage and the first to elect a woman to an elective
position. Women in New Zealand maintain a high profile in politics and have been elected to
Parliament as well as to local political positions. It has had two consecutive female prime
ministers, Jenny Shipley (1997-1999) and Helen Clark (1999-2008). During the Government
of Helen Clark, women held all the top public positions (OneWomen, 2000b). Yet, despite
women’s visibility in public life, gender stereotypes remain a problem, especially in relation
to the situation of indigenous and migrant women, in particular those from the Pacific islands
in the latter case (CEDAW, 2006b).
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In the subregion of North-East Asia, traditional views on gender roles have remained an
impediment to the realization of full gender equality. However, favourable economic
conditions, coupled with pressure from educated and politicized women to institute changes,
have led to the introduction of innovative laws, policies and programmes that help to advance
the gender equality agenda of national mechanisms.
Traditional gender roles contribute to the persistence of domestic violence as a common and
serious problem in many countries. Social and cultural concerns, about shaming one’s family
and endangering the reputation of one’s spouse or offspring, allow domestic violence to go
unreported. In other cases, it is the economic powerlessness of women that serves as a
deterrent to the reporting of abuse. These sentiments, combined with ineffective prosecution,
make progress against domestic violence difficult. In a survey undertaken in India by the
National Family Health Survey, 56 per cent of women interviewed stated that domestic
violence was justified (OneWomen 2009). In Fiji, it was estimated that some 10 per cent of
women have been abused (OneWomen 2001b). The same situation exists in other parts of
Asia and the Pacific, including the more developed economies of Australia, Brunei
Darussalam , China, Japan, New Zealand and the Republic of Korea.
The philosophical system that underlies the dominant culture is another feature of Asian and
Pacific nations that impacts gender equality efforts. The philosophy may be translated into an
ethical structure governing behaviour (Confucianism or Hinduism) or is represented by a
religious institution (for example, Buddhism, Islam, Catholicism or Protestantism). Either
way, the intersection between cultural traditions and ethical-religious values is so close that it
is often difficult to determine whether issues of gender inequality come from one or the other.
In many instances, the deep cleavages in the gender division of labour across different
nations is attributed to religious values, even if closer analysis reveals that it is the cultural
interpretation of an ethic that is responsible (Gross, 1993; Ahmed, 2002; Mananzan, 2004;
Rosenlee, 2006).
Education, democratization processes and women’s increased consciousness of gender
equality values have modified some norms governing gender relations. But the process has
not been able to completely transform stereotypical expectations into norms of gender parity
in both productive and reproductive spheres. What is worrisome is the upsurge in recent
decades of conservative or fundamentalist views on religion which serve to deepen gender
differentiations rather than transform them.
Conservative ethical and religious values account for linkages made between women’s
mechanisms and government agencies in charge of families, communities or disadvantaged
groups. This is because it is easier to address women’s rights in terms of their roles in the
family and community rather than as individuals and citizens endowed with human agency;
or as disempowered, dependent persons in need of measures that will ease their plight, rather
than in terms of strategies that will significantly change their circumstances. What is at issue,
therefore, is not necessarily religious beliefs but the imposition of patriarchal values in the
name of ethics and morality in order to reinforce the subordination of women in Asia and the
Pacific.
B. Economic context
Since 2005, six nations in the Asia and the Pacific region have attained high human
development according to Human Development Index (HDI) scores above 0.90: Australia,
Brunei Darussalam, Japan, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea and Singapore (UNDP,
2005a; UNDP, 2009) along with Hong Kong, China. A majority of the other nations belong
to the group enjoying medium human development, although Malaysia has been re-classified
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as having high human development as of 2009 (HDI=0.829; UNDP, 2009). Thailand is
ranked highest among the Asian nations in the medium human development group for 2009
(HDI=0.783; UNDP, 2009). China improved its score from HDI=0.755 to HDI=0.772, while
India’s human development index score has remained more or less stagnant over the past five
years (from HDI=0.602 to HDI=0.612) (UNDP, 2005a; UNDP, 2009). According to the
human development index, two States in the region have been classified as having low
human development: Timor-Leste (HDI=0.489) and Afghanistan (HDI=0.352; UNDP, 2009).
1. Highly developed economies: Australia, New Zealand and Brunei Darussalam
Robust business and consumer confidence, a strong domestic market and high export levels
helped place Australia and New Zealand among the fastest growing economies of the region
in the last 20 years (ESCAP 2008; CIA, 2009). Both nations have instituted programmes to
increase the participation of women in the labour force. Still, a wage gap persists, with
women’s earnings being less than those of men. In fact, data released in 2009 indicates that
the disparity in pay between working men and women in Australia is widening. In New
Zealand, the difference in the average hourly earnings of women and men was 14 per cent in
2003 and has been relatively stable for a number of years. In both countries, women’s care
responsibilities, the undervaluation of women’s work, occupational and industry segregation,
lack of job security, and lower educational attainments are implicated as factors responsible
for the disadvantageous position of women in those economies.
Brunei Darussalam is an independent sultanate governed on the basis of a written
constitution. Women enjoy equal opportunities with men regarding education, medical
treatment, social welfare and employment. Its policy of universal education has been cited as
the factor responsible for the sharp rise in the number of literate women, for an increase in
the number of women in the labour force and for the higher level of participation by women
at all levels of society. Despite its high level of human development, gender discrimination
remains a continuing problem. Brunei Darussalam is ranked 95th out of 134 countries on the
Gender Gap Index (Hausmann, 2009). The national machinery confirms that it lacks
sufficient resources to facilitate the mainstreaming of gender concerns in national
programmes and policies. Instead of gender equality, the national machinery is concerned
with developing awareness among women of their roles and responsibilities in strengthening
the family unit for “harmonious living in family life, society and the nation,” and to
participate in development “without compromising the stability of their marriage/family life”.
(The Brunei Darussalam Report on the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action)
2. High economic growth in Asia
Japan, the Republic of Korea and Singapore as well as Hong Kong, China and Taiwan
Province of China are known as the tiger economies of Asia. These countries are among the
nations in the region that, from the 1960s to the 1990s, successfully shifted from
predominantly agricultural to industrialized societies, resulting in rapid economic growth.
The tiger economies grew by pursuing an export-driven model of economic development,
exporting goods to highly industrialized nations. Once they shifted from an agricultural base,
there was an abundant supply of cheap labour that could be re-directed to industrialization.
This shift incorporated the labour participation of women, who had been part of the unpaid
agricultural labour force. Coupled with educational reforms, the countries were able to
leverage this combination into a cheap yet productive workforce. Hence, the Asian economic
miracle was largely a gendered phenomenon powered by the work of mostly young and
single women, who were paid wages lower than those of their male coworkers (Truong,
1998). Consumer demands, State policies, and changing levels of expectations encouraged
more and more women in these economies to join the industrial labour force.
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When economic growth was just beginning, female workers predominated in the
manufacturing sector. In many instances, employers preferred the recruitment of young,
unmarried women, who were not expected to maintain a career in their jobs but rather, to
leave the labour force to marry after a few years. For this reason, they were usually accorded
lower wages than male workers. In the Republic of Korea, for example, female workers
received only a fraction of the wages of male counterparts: 49.6 per cent in production work
and 63.1 per cent in services (Cho, 1986, cited in Truong, 2008). Women were more likely to
occupy part time positions, and were the first to be laid off during business downturns.
However, across the tiger economies and for different reasons, women slowly moved into the
service sector, chiefly as clerical and administrative workers (Truong, 1998). By the late
1990s, the overall gender wage gap in the tiger economies had narrowed, with the average
female wage being 80 per cent of the male wage in the service sector, and 60 per cent in the
manufacturing sector. Moreover, the number of women of childbearing age who remained in
the labour market increased, almost doubling in Singapore and Hong Kong, China.
From 1990 to 2006, China, known as the dragon economy, achieved the highest economic
growth rate in Asia. However, female activists have expressed concern that the progress
attained by women since 1949 is being eroded. It is estimated that 25 per cent of all women
are semi-literate or illiterate, compared with 10 per cent of men. Women workers also report
being victims of sexual harassment, unfair dismissals, demotions and wage discrepancies
(OneWomen, 2001a). Because of the Chinese traditional preference for sons, sex-selective
abortions of female fetuses, female infanticide and neglect and abandonment of baby girls
remain significant issues.
The recent economic growth in India has not benefited women as much as it has men. In
2006, the employment rate for ages 15-64 was 80 per cent for men but only 39 per cent for
women in similar cohort groups. On the average, Indian women receive only 40 per cent of
the wages of male workers, with the discrepancy being larger in the manufacturing sector
than in services or agriculture (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD, 2009). Furthermore, women constitute 90 per cent of workers in the informal
economy, where they have insecure jobs, receive menial pay and lack social protection.
However, disparities in access to education have declined and the enrollment of females in
secondary education from 1991 to 2006 has risen steadily (OECD, 2009). Still, the Gender
Gap Index for India was 0.61 in 2009, placing it among the countries in the lowest quartile of
the index (Hausmann, 2009). Given this situation of continuing gender inequality, the
Concluding Comments of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women to the State Party Report of India in 2007 recommended, among other things, for the
State to “establish viable strategies to overcome the impediments to the practical realization
of women’s rights” (CEDAW, 2007). Foremost among these recommended strategies was the
creation of formal links between the National Commission for Women and its various statelevel counterparts. It also recommended the use of coordination and monitoring mechanisms
to ensure “the effective harmonization and implementation of gender equality programmes
and policies, as well as enforcement of legislation on women’s rights, at the central, state and
union territory levels” (CEDAW, 2007).
3. International labour migration: part of the Asian miracle
To enable them to continue their employment, women with substantial earnings in the
industrialized countries eventually transferred their reproductive burdens to migrant domestic
workers coming from less developed nations of the region, notably from India, Indonesia, the
Philippines and Thailand (Nijeholt, 1994; Cheng 1996). The labour migration of women from
less developed to newly developed and industrialized economies of the region has resulted in
a number of challenges. First, female migrant workers ordinarily do not enjoy the same
9
wages as female local workers. Migrants occupy the lower rungs of the wage ladder, getting
lower wages than the local workers. Second, female migrant workers are more vulnerable to
physical abuse and exploitation, especially in countries where they are not familiar with the
language. Moreover, female migrant workers are vulnerable to sexual violence, human
trafficking and prostitution. There have been many documented instances when labour
recruiters have deceived women into entering prostitution under false pretences at the time of
recruitment. Third, they are often not entitled to the same rights and benefits as local women
workers, as in accessing health care, social protection, and legal representation.,
Despite challenges, the movement of persons across borders continues unabated. Economic
gains from labour migration undoubtedly propel these movements. Beyond this, migration
can provide avenues for improving women’s individual capacities and identities: as
individuals with substantial incomes in relation to their peers left behind; as women who are
able to provide for and upgrade the living standards of their families; as individuals in
possession of new skills and insights brought about by living in a developed nation; and as
self-reliant women able to work independently and make decisions. As noted in the 2009
Human Development Report, the majority of migrants, far from being victims, tend to be
successful, both before they leave their original home and after arrival in their new one
(UNDP, 2009). What is needed, therefore, is to ensure that labour migration produces more
favourable than unfavourable outcomes.
Labour migration, as part of globalization, is an issue that national women’s machineries
have to deal with in planning for the well-being of women in Asia and the Pacific. As a result
of the work of these national mechanisms, there have been more regional discussions
between sending and receiving nations regarding the protection and enhancement of the
rights of female labour migrants. For instance, in 2002, member States of the South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) signed the Convention on Preventing and
Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution. They noted with concern,
“the increasing exploitation by traffickers of women and children from SAARC countries and
their increasing use of these countries as sending, receiving and transit points”, and
recognized the importance of establishing effective regional cooperation to prevent
trafficking for prostitution. The Convention then lays out a series of measures for the
investigation, detection, interdiction, prosecution and punishment of those responsible for
trafficking, with due regard to the implementation of the recommendations of various
pertinent international bodies and conferences (SAARC, 2002).
4. Gender, poverty and vulnerabilities
In 2008, it was estimated that 600 million of the world’s poor live in Asia, comprising nearly
two thirds of the global total (ESCAP, 2008). Poverty measures the discrimination or
inequalities suffered by certain sectors in relation to the rights, resources and opportunities
for individual and collective well-being. It includes income inequality, disparities in health
and educational status, discriminations in political power and participation, and unequal
access to justice, with gender inequality cutting across these various concerns.
Using income poverty as a means to measure, the following nations of Asia and the Pacific
have at least a quarter of their populations living below the poverty line: Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Cambodia, Fiji, India, Kiribati, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Micronesia (Federated
States of), Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri
Lanka, Timor-Leste, Tuvalu and Vanuatu (ADB, 2007).
The poor are mainly found in rural areas of developing nations within the region, and
agriculture provides jobs for a majority of them. The labour participation of women in
10
agriculture differs across nations, but tends to be equal to those of men in countries where it
is still the predominant economic activity. However, in South Asia, more than 60 per cent of
all female employment is in agriculture, while in South-East Asia women provide up to 90
per cent of the labour for rice cultivation (ESCAP, 2009a). Despite these observations, a
sizable proportion of women’s work in agriculture remains ”invisible” in national accounts,
as women are classified as unpaid family farm workers.
Because of gender roles and stereotypes, many women are poor. They are segregated into
occupations that pay low wages or none at all, are often home-based and devoid of social
protection, are insecure and exploitative in terms of work arrangements, and which may not
be fulltime occupations owing to women’s multiple burdens. In 2007, for instance, the
International Labour Organization (ILO) reported that 85.1 per cent of working women in
South Asia were in vulnerable employment as compared to 74.3 per cent of men (ILO, 2009).
Among some of the countries with the highest proportions of people living below the poverty
line, data point to women’s greater disadvantage in terms of education, health and nutrition
(ADB, 2007; ESCAP, 2005).
The largest percentages of boys and girls under the age of five who are underweight are
located in Timor-Leste and in countries of South Asia. Girls suffer greater nutritional
disadvantages compared to boys in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and TimorLeste (ADB, 2007). In terms of life expectancy, both Asian men and women have gained
some 20 years in life expectancy between 1960 and 2006. Moreover, women in Asia usually
live longer than men, and the rates of survival to age 65 are always greater for women than
for men, regardless of the economic status of the country considered (OECD, 2009).
However, a high level of maternal mortality remains a significant problem in many parts of
Asia and the Pacific.
Gender gaps in literacy are often associated with income poverty measures, but the
relationship is not consistent (ADB, 2007). Lower literacy for women can occur even in
nations undergoing rapid economic development, such as China and India. The good news is
that disparities between the enrollment rates of girls and boys in primary education have
decreased in many countries as of 2005 (ADB, 2007). Among the member States of the Asian
Development Bank, gender disparities in primary education have been eliminated in
Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, the Philippines, the
Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and in most of the small Pacific island countries
(except for Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu) (ADB,
2007). In many of these countries, in fact, greater rates of girls than boys are enrolled in
school, especially in secondary schools (OECD, 2009).
5. Economic and environmental crises: present challenges
The current economic crisis presents an unexpected threat to poverty reduction programmes
and the situation of women in the region. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has
estimated that an additional 9 million women in the region will become unemployed in 2009
as a result of the crisis (ILO, 2009). Reports from the national machineries indicate that
among the sectors hardest hit by the economic crisis, are those dominated by women,
including manufacturing for export, tourism and related services.
Women tend to increase their informal employment in times of economic crisis, as a way to
offset their own as well as men’s unemployment. Often, they do so without the benefits of
social protection and under adverse conditions. Economic difficulties may also result in
cutbacks in the provision of public services women need, such as those for health, credit,
skills training or housing support. Consequently, women engage in more unpaid care work to
11
provide, for their homes, the goods and services that they can no longer afford to buy, or that
are not available from public services.
In 2008 and 2009, two other sources of vulnerabilities in this part of the world gained
prominence, natural disasters and climate change. Nations of Asia and the Pacific are among
the most vulnerable to environmental changes, including rising sea levels, changing patterns
and amounts of rainfall and flows of river water, droughts, severe floods and heavier and
more frequent storms. These phenomena have direct impact on food security, transportation,
infrastructure, communities, water resources, diseases and injuries (ESCAP, 2009a). Natural
disasters and other occurrences linked to climate change affect most severely the poorest
sectors in countries where livelihoods are predominantly linked to agriculture, and where
resources for mitigation and adaptation are lacking. They affect the ability of women to
undertake their gender roles, both in reproduction and production (Enarson, 2009).
Displacement, evacuation, and loss of livelihood also render women more vulnerable to
abuse, trafficking and sexual exploitation.
In a statement made in October 2009, the People’s Action on Climate Watch said “women
and children, especially marginalized sectors such as rural and poor peoples are most
vulnerable to the impact of extreme weather events, climate-related natural disasters, rising
sea levels, rise of climate-sensitive diseases and the like” (PACC, 2009). Almost at the same
time, representatives of Governments, including national women’s mechanisms, agreed to
mainstream a gender perspective in environment, disaster management and climate change
adaptation programmes (ESCAP, 2009a).
C. Political context
Asia has the highest incidence of armed conflicts in the world, most of which are protracted
conflicts spanning several decades. Over two dozen countries have been involved in intrastate
armed conflicts between government forces and at least one armed non-state force.
Whatever has been the nature of internal or international conflicts, they have been
characterized by the disproportionate victimization of women and children (UNRISD, 2005).
In a recent report, the major conflict related consequences to women have been divided into
three broad categories: increased level of gender based violence, destruction of infrastructure,
and internal as well as cross-border displacement (ESCAP, 2009g).
While the experience of gender based violence impacts women’s physiological,
psychological and social well-being, the destruction of infrastructure impacts women’s ability
to carry out their gender roles. War and conflict may disrupt agricultural production and
women’s access to economic activity, diminish household resources needed in their
reproductive roles, and prevent access to health care facilities, thereby adversely affecting
women’s reproductive health as well as their care-giving roles (Pluemper and Neumayer,
2006). Work such as fetching water, tilling the land and buying and selling in markets
becomes not only more difficult and time consuming but also increasingly dangerous for
women (ESCAP, 2009g).
The forced displacement of women may be the most pervasive cause of suffering among
women caught in situations of armed conflict. Internally displaced people or refugees may
have little or no access to basic economic, social and cultural rights. They live for years
without proper access to education, medical facilities, or even water. Armed conflict puts
considerable strain on the delivery of basic social services such as health services and
12
education. In this regard, the International Committee of the Red Cross reports that the
highest rates of maternal deaths occur in ten countries that either are currently at war or have
recently emerged from war.
Realizing the seriousness of this state of affairs, the delegates to the recently concluded AsiaPacific High-level Intergovernmental Meeting to Review Regional Implementation of the
Beijing Platform for Action and Its Regional and Global Outcomes committed to “ensure the
protection of women and girls, in particular against sexual violence, during and after armed
conflicts, in accordance with the obligation of States under international humanitarian law
and international human rights law” and to ensure likewise the “equal participation and full
involvement of women in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and
security, and their role in decision-making with regard to conflict prevention and resolution”
(ESCAP November 2009).
These are some of the circumstances that impinge on the lives of women in Asia and the
Pacific. In this context, what types of national machineries for gender equality and women’s
empowerment have evolved? What have their roles been? How have they responded to the
issues that have arisen?
II. The Evolution of National Mechanisms
A total of 18 nations in Asia and the Pacific established national machineries prior to the
Fourth World Congress of Women in 1995.2 In 1971, India created a Commission on the
Status of Women to comprehensively examine all questions on the rights and status of
women. Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, and Viet Nam established mechanisms within the International Decade for Women
(1975-1985). For example, the National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women was
established in 1975 as an advisory body to the Philippine President and the Cabinet on
policies and programmes for the advancement of women, in accordance with the Declaration
of Mexico on the Equality of Women for the State “to create the necessary facilities so that
women may be integrated into society” (United Nations, 1975).
The national machineries were initially formed as committees, offices, units, bureaus,
departments, or commissions. In socialist states, the women’s union or federation usually
served as the main institution that later on would become the national machinery. Thus, in
Viet Nam, the National Committee for the Women's Decade was established in 1985 to
honour its commitment to implement the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the
Advancement of Women. In 1993, it was renamed the National Committee for the
Advancement of Women in Viet Nam, and has been advising the Prime Minister on matters
pertaining to gender equality and the advancement of Vietnamese women. In 2002, the Prime
Minister decided to strengthen the National Commission and installed the President of the
Viet Nam Women’s Union as Chairperson, the Vice-Ministers of Education and Foreign
Affairs as Vice-Chairpersons, and 15 Vice Ministers of relevant ministries, branches and
mass organizations as members.
2
For charts detailing country-specific information related to National Mechanisms for Equality and the
Empowerment of Women on topics covered in the remaining chapters of this report, please see appendix, matrix
1 and 2.
13
A. Responses to international conventions and declarations
The 1995 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action played a significant role in the
formation and evolution of national gender mechanisms. Thus, Myanmar established the
Myanmar National Committee for Women’s Affairs in July 1996 to honour the country’s
commitment to the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, and to systematically
implement activities for the advancement of women. In October of the same year, the
Government formed the Myanmar National Working Committee for Women’s Affairs to
facilitate these activities. The Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement was
designated as the National Focal Point for Women’s Affairs.
The Republic of Korea enacted the Women’s Development Act in 1995 and adopted the
Basic Plan for Women’s Policies and designated Women’s Policy Officers across
Government ministries in 1998. The Ministry of Gender Equality was founded in 2001, and
in 2002 the Women’s Policy Coordination Committee was instituted. The following year, the
Women’s Affairs Committee of the Korean National Assembly was established.
In 1996, the National Council on Women’s Issues was set up in Mongolia in order to
monitor, assess, develop recommendations and support the implementation of State policies,
relevant legislations and international instruments to benefit women. It was headed by the
Minister of Health and Social Security, with members from the Parliament, responsible
officers from line ministries and representatives of women’s non-governmental
organizations. In 2001, the Council was reconstituted as the National Council on Gender
Equality, with the Deputy Secretary of the Cabinet Secretariat as the Chair of the Council.
Ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against
Women has also been influential in giving birth to and nurturing national mechanisms on
gender equality and women’s empowerment. For example, the National Commission for the
Advancement of Women in Lao People’s Democratic Republic, was formally approved by
the Prime Minister in early 2002 to act as the focal point for gender mainstreaming in
Government, and to monitor implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of all
Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Beijing Platform for Action, and other
Government commitments on equal rights between men and women. It works alongside the
Lao Women’s Union, a mass organization that supports women across the country, as well as
with Government line ministries.
In China, the National Working Committee on Children and Women under the State Council,
acts as the coordination and consultation mechanism of the Chinese Government in charge of
women and children's work. Created in 2000, it represents part of China’s efforts to improve
its legal system to protect the rights and interests of women, formulate and implement
programmes regarding women's development, further improve relevant working organs,
increase financial input and strengthen social awareness.
Singapore acceded and signed the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) on 5 October 1995. In order to monitor and
facilitate its implementation, the Inter-Ministry Committee on CEDAW was set up in July
1996, with representatives from various ministries and public sector agencies as members. In
May 2002, the Women’s Desk at the Ministry of Community Development and Sports was
created to serve as the national focal point on policy matters and international cooperation
pertaining to women. It works with the Inter-Ministry Committee on CEDAW and with local
women’s groups to address women’s issues cutting across all ministries and the public sector.
The Women’s Desk also provides secretariat support to the Inter-Ministry Committee on
CEDAW.
14
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea acceded to the Convention on the Elimination of
all Forms of Discrimination against Women on February 27, 2001, subsequently leading to
the organization of the National Coordination Committee for the Implementation of CEDAW
on September 10, 2001. The National Coordination Committee for the Implementation of
CEDAW oversees the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination against Women and coordinates relevant measures.
The Cambodian National Council for Women was established in 2001 by Royal Decree. It is
the mechanism for coordinating and providing advice to the Government on matters related
to the promotion of the status, roles and social welfare of women, as well as the elimination
of all forms of discrimination and violence against women. It is tasked to monitor and follow
up on the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW, 2004).
Similarly, the CEDAW Partnership Committee was formed in Samoa to coordinate, promote
and implement the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against
Women, and to provide advice on important law reform for women’s empowerment. It is a
national forum composed of non-governmental organizations, civil society groups and
representatives from the private sector. The CEDAW Partnership Committee developed the
National Policy for Women and the subsequent National Plan of Action, and works through
the Ministry of Women, Community and Social Development.
In the Philippines, efforts to legislate a law that promotes gender equality gained more
adherents as a response to one of the Concluding Comments by the Committee on the
Elimination of Discrimination against Women to the fifth and sixth Country Reports in 2006,
which states that the State needed “to give high priority to strengthening the legal framework
for the promotion of gender equality and women’s enjoyment of their human rights”
(CEDAW, 2006a). Apart from being a comprehensive women's human rights law that seeks
to eliminate discrimination against women, the Magna Carta of Women, signed into law on
August 14, 2009, strengthens the structure and functions of the National Commission on the
Role of Filipina Women and gives it the responsibility to be “the primary policy-making and
coordinating body of women and gender equality concerns under the Office of the President.”
It was renamed the Philippine Commission on Women, and serves as the overall monitoring
body and oversight agency to ensure the implementation of the law.
B. Critical events in states
Significant events in certain countries have also served to influence the evolution of national
mechanisms for gender equality and women’s empowerment. Three types of events have
been critical: transitions from one form of government to another, successions of government
and bureaucratic reforms in government.
1. Transitions
States in the region have experienced various forms of transitions. For example, the
installation of transitional governments under the guidance of the United Nations has been
instrumental in the creation of gender equality mechanisms. In Timor-Leste, the presence of
various development agencies that promote the advancement of women resulted in an
increase in the number of women’s non-governmental organizations and women’s rights
advocates. Their actions pushed for the creation of a Gender Affairs Unit during the first and
second transition period.
In Afghanistan, the Ministry of Women's Affairs was established by the Afghan Bonn
Agreement as part of the establishment of an interim authority. It was tasked by the interim
15
and transitional Government of Afghanistan to ensure that government policies, budgets and
services take due consideration of their impact on both Afghan women and men. The
Ministry also works to ensure that gender related commitments made by the Government are
implemented.
2. Successions of government
New forms and structures of the national mechanisms can take place as governments change
and their directions shift. The Ministry of Health and Women’s Affairs, with a State Ministry
of Women’s Affairs directly below it, served as the national machinery for Sri Lanka until
1994. The structure was changed after the assumption of office by the new Government in
1997. In the Cabinet shuffle that ensued, a separate Ministry for Women’s Affairs was
established, with the purpose of strengthening women’s development.
In the Solomon Islands, when the Coalition for National Unity and Rural Advancement came
into power, a separate Ministry for Women Youth and Children Affairs was created.
More recently in the Republic of Korea, a Cabinet reshuffle initiated by the President in
September 2009 will lead to the reconstitution of the Ministry of Gender Equality in March
2010 as the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family Affairs (Choe Sang-Hun, 2009).
Services for families and youth that have been carried out by the Health Ministry will be
transferred to the new Ministry. In addition, new positions for supporting interracial families
will be created. The new Ministry will also receive 290 billion won ($260 million) in addition
to its former budget of 103 billion won ($918 million), and it’s staff will double in number
(Lee, 2010).
3. Bureaucratic reforms
In Thailand, the Office of Women’s Affairs and Family Development was transferred as a
department to the newly formed Ministry of Social Development and Human Security during
the public administration reform in 2002. It integrated the work of three formerly separate
mechanisms: the former Office of National Commission on Women’s Affairs under the
Office of the Prime Minister, the Women, Child and Youth Development Division under the
Community Development Department, the Ministry of Interior, and the former Department of
Public Welfare, Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare. Under its present set-up, the Office
of Women’s Affairs and Family Development collaborates at local levels with organizations
of local administrators, non-governmental organizations, civil society, groups and networks
of women and families. On the national level, it maintains links with gender focal points and
gender equality officers of the various ministries. As the national machinery, it raises the
suggestions and opinions of these mechanisms to the National Commission on the Promotion
and Coordination of Women’s Affairs, chaired by the Prime Minister or the Deputy Prime
Minister.
C. Constitutional and legislative reforms on gender equality
National mechanisms have also emerged or been modified as responses to
constitutional reforms or new legislations. For instance, after the promulgation of the new
Constitution of Thailand in 1997, several independent bodies were set up. Among these were
the Constitutional Court, the Office of Ombudsman and the National Human Rights
Commission. After the Act on the Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence (2007) was
enacted in November of that year, the following three new mechanisms were established:
§ Coordinating Centre for the Act of Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence promotes public knowledge and provides training regarding the act to concerned
organizations, and coordinates implementation and monitoring of the act
16
§
§
Operation Centre for the Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence - provides
immediate services for victims, coordinates with local networks, legal and
administrative authorities regarding protective orders and case settlements, and
collects data and information on domestic violence
One Stop Crisis Centre - a multidisciplinary unit providing comprehensive services
for victims of domestic violence
The Australian Human Rights Commission, through the Sex Discrimination Commissioner
(appointed in 2007), investigates complaints of breaches of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984.
The Commission has also reported on issues associated with balancing paid work and family
responsibilities. It has made 45 recommendations to the Government for policy and
legislative reforms, mainly in the areas of employment and workplace relations.
Two landmark laws for women have been promulgated in Viet Nam in the past two years.
The first is the Law on Gender Equality which entered into force in 2007, paving the way for
greater emphasis on empowering women in public and private life. The second is the Law on
Domestic Violence, enacted in November 2007, which provides that violence against women
is a criminal act, and specifies actions to prosecute perpetrators and to assist victims. Both
laws were drafted using the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination
against Women as the framework. When the Gender Equality Law was enacted, Viet Nam set
up a Department of Gender Equality under the Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social
Affairs to ensure its implementation. In turn, the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism has
been designated as the State agency to monitor compliance with the domestic violence law.
The Pakistani Government launched the National Gender Reform Action Plan in 2005, in
order to strengthen the Government’s efforts to implement national and international
commitments to gender equality. Because of this, gender development sections have been
established in strategic ministries and focal persons have been appointed to ensure that
gender is mainstreamed in the policies, plans and programmes of these organizations.
D. Executive and legislative reforms for gender mainstreaming
Heightened awareness and recognition of the importance of a gender framework in relation to
national development has led to the introduction of both executive and legislative measures
that support gender mainstreaming3, as well as increased collaborations among stakeholders.
In Indonesia, the Law on Regional Government stipulates that the empowerment of women is
part of the responsibility of the Deputy Head of the Regional Government. Together with a
Presidential Instruction for gender mainstreaming, there are two pertinent ministerial
regulations, the first requiring local level implementation of gender mainstreaming, and the
second mandating the use of gender analysis in planning and policy development. With these
measures, the implementation of gender mainstreaming has been strengthened at subnational
levels of governance, within and across national departments, and in collaboration with
Women/Gender Study Centers and non-governmental organizations. The devolution of the
budget process to local governments increased the opportunities for greater involvement by
local legislators and women’s groups. For instance, the local branches of the Indonesian
Women’s Coalition for Justice and Democracy formed joint forums with the local
government in order to consult and share information on budgetary matters and initiated joint
research with the Planning Bureau on the development of a gender budget.
3
The definition of gender mainstreaming for the purpose of this report is the “process of assessing the
implications for men and women of any planned action, including legislation, policies and programmes in all
areas and at all levels” (ESCAP, 2003).
17
Similarly, in the Philippines, the initial push for gender mainstreaming was provided by law,
namely the Women in Development and Nation Building Act of 1992. This became the basis
for the enactment of other laws and executive memoranda that strengthened the work of
national machineries and ensured implementation of the Philippine Plan for GenderResponsive Development through the 1990s and into the 21st century. Local level
mainstreaming activities were strengthened through the implementation of Gender and
Development Planning and Budgeting memoranda. Gender and Development Councils were
organized in cities and provinces to undertake gender analysis and formulate Gender and
Development Plans.
E. Donor concerns for gender equality
The requirement of international funding agencies and donors to incorporate a gendersensitive component in project plans and implementation, as well as the availability of
financial and technical support to national mechanisms, has helped to propel the formation of
gender equality mechanisms. For example, Australia is committed to developing women as
leaders in the Pacific, especially in terms of improving the participation of women in
decision-making.
ESCAP has been instrumental in providing regular avenues for high-level discussions on
gender equality and gender mainstreaming, both in regional and subregional contexts. Its
database provides a rich resource for gender mainstreaming and other concerns linked to the
Beijing Platform for Action, the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination against Women, and gender-responsive human development. The United
Nations Development Programme’s portfolio of programmes has enabled countries to
mainstream gender into their development plans. Similarly, United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF) and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) have been strong influences on
enabling national mechanisms to address national concerns related to women’s empowerment
and gender equality.
F. Women’s non-governmental organizations and women’s rights
advocates
Across the region, women’s groups and non-governmental organizations continue to address
gender concerns in partnerships with Governments. In Timor-Leste, for instance, networks of
women’s organizations, such as the Rede Feto Coalition, have emerged as mechanisms
through which women can attempt to influence policy making and the political process. In
Cambodia, Lao Democratic People’s Republic and Viet Nam, women’s unions are
represented in the national machinery and serve as the partners of the state mechanism in the
promotion of women’s rights down to the grass roots.
In India, a network of more than 12,000 voluntary organizations play a significant role in the
empowerment of women and the development of children, as they share the burden of
implementing governmental policies and programmes. In Pakistan, non-governmental
organizations are recognized as alternative institutional mechanisms for the transformation of
women’s status and rights.
The national mechanism in the Republic of Korea is closely linked to the women and gender
studies units of its universities, which provide perspectives and expertise for promoting
gender equality. In China, the All-China Women’s Federation was responsible for
establishing a national women’s legal assistance center and two hotlines: one was set up to
protect women’s rights and interests, and another to combat domestic violence. Cadres of the
All-China Women’s Federation have also been invited to serve as people’s jurors and
18
arbitrators in labour and land arbitrations, thereby providing services and assistance in
protection of the rights and interests of women.
III. Profile of National Mechanisms
When discussing the profile of national mechanisms, it is important to remember that there
are wide variety of political systems in the Asia and the Pacific region. This has a bearing on
the form and location of national mechanisms for gender equality and women’s
empowerment. For instance, in a parliamentary system, there is a fusion of powers between
the legislative and executive branches. Most constitutional monarchies in the region also
follow the parliamentary system. As such, executive powers in these Governments are
exercised by Ministers appointed from the legislature, and affairs of state are led by these
elected officials.
A. Mandates of national mechanisms
The mandates of the different national machineries generally revolve around aspirations
toward the attainment of gender equality, the promotion of equal rights and the advancement
of women, the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination against Women, and the full integration of women in economic, social and
cultural development. However, a good number also focus on the provision of welfare,
training and support services for employment and livelihood programmes. There is a
tendency to value the economic contributions of women as workers, but not as individuals
who are agents of change. Consistent with the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action,
all national mechanisms for the advancement of women in the Asia and the Pacific region
purportedly promote “an active and visible policy of mainstreaming a gender perspective”
(United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, 1995). Main trends and processes
in the development of these mechanisms will be examined in terms of how these dynamics
facilitate progress towards the goals of gender equality and the empowerment of women
through gender mainstreaming principles and processes.
B. Structures of national mechanisms
Recent developments in the evolution of national machineries include the following
organizational changes: enhancement of mandates; upgrading of focal points within the
government structure to high levels of power; establishment of women’s bureaus/divisions in
various line ministries and the creation of inter-ministerial committees and task forces; and
collaboration with non-governmental organizations (ESCAP, 13 December 2003).
The location and organizational structure of a gender equality mechanism in the government
bureaucracy reflects the value attached to their mandates. Studies repeatedly illustrate that the
location of the mechanism will have implications on its authority and scope of influence over
different instrumentalities of the state, such as: to mainstream gender goals and perspectives
in development plans; enforce policies and oversee the implementation of relevant laws and
directives that protect and advance women’s rights; and to mobilize public action for specific
gender concerns (Tavares da Silva, 2005). The location and leadership of a mechanism also
determines, in many ways, the size of its budget and organization. The budget and human
resources attached to the organization will then impact its roles and functions – such as
planning, coordination, implementation and monitoring of national gender plans and gender
equality laws.
19
The legal provisions underlying the formation of national women’s mechanisms describe
their mandate and powers, which may or may not include the authority to impose sanctions
on gender-based discriminations and/or violations of women’s rights. In general, national
gender equality mechanisms and organizations in the ESCAP region derive their authority
from respective constitutions; gender equality legislations; and acts of Parliament or decrees
from the prime minister or president that address gender equality and women’s
empowerment. Some laws also specify the allocation of funds for national mechanisms, and
for gender mainstreaming across governmental structures.
C. Types and locations of national mechanisms
Currently, national mechanisms vary in form, but the majority enjoys the status of a ministry.
Among these ministries, eight are organizations dealing solely with women’s concerns
(Afghanistan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Republic of Korea, and
Sri Lanka). Except New Zealand, where the Ministry of Women’s Affairs is headed by a
Chief Executive, the other mechanisms are headed by Ministers of Parliament or Ministers of
State.
Two stand-alone mechanisms are ministries situated in the highest echelons of power. First,
the national machinery in Australia is the Minister for the Status of Women, supported by the
Office for Women, and is lodged in the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Second, the national machinery in Timor-Leste is the Secretary of State for the Promotion of
Equality, under the Cabinet of the Prime Minister.
Aside from ministries, other mechanisms are commissions or committees. The women’s
mechanisms in Mongolia and Thailand are headed by their respective Prime Ministers and
assisted by Deputy Prime Ministers, while in Lao Democratic People’s Republic the National
Commission for the Advancement of Women is led by the Deputy Prime Minister. In Japan,
the national machinery is under a Cabinet Office, namely the Council for Gender Equality. It
is led by the Prime Minister, and chaired by the Chief Cabinet Secretary and the Minister of
State for Social Affairs and Gender Equality.
Remaining national mechanisms are lodged under various other ministries, as departments or
offices, women’s desks, or directorates. Aside from women’s affairs, these ministries are also
responsible for, among other things, youth, families, war invalids, culture, sports, and social
and community development. In these organizations, the gender mechanism is not necessarily
the direct responsibility of the Minister, but of the head of the department or office to which
it belongs. This individual is not usually a minister, but an appointed official. Such is the
case in Brunei Darussalam, India, and Thailand. However, the situation in Viet Nam is
different. While the national machinery, the National Commission for the Advancement of
Women, is now lodged in the Department of Gender Equality of the Ministry of Labour,
Invalids and Social Affairs, the Minister is the chairperson of the National Commission.
Some states have national machineries with representatives from various stakeholders outside
of Government. The National Commission for Women and Children in Bhutan was
established as the national mechanism regarding women and children’s rights. Its eleven
members are composed of government officials, law enforcement, judiciary, civil society,
and the social, media and business sectors. The Commission was delinked from the
Government in August 2008, in order to strengthen its mandate, legitimacy and influence.
Similarly, the Board of the Philippine Commission on Women comprises a broad
representation of governmental and non-governmental institutions. Aside from ten ex officio
representatives from cabinet departments, ten representatives from different social sectors sit
20
on the board – from labour, business and industry, science and health, education and the
academe, youth, urban poor, peasants and fisher folk, indigenous people, elderly and
disabled, media, arts and culture. However, unlike in Bhutan, the Philippine Commission on
Women remains a government unit under the Office of the President.
National machineries, such as those in, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China,
India, the Lao Democratic People’s Republic and Viet Nam, coordinate their activities for
gender equality with women’s organizations that enjoy separate status as independent
women’s mechanisms.
D. Other mechanisms for gender equality
In the past five to ten years, mechanisms seeking to promote gender equality in different parts
of the region have diversified. Reports by some States identify more than one mechanism in
charge of promoting gender equality. On the national or local levels, these mechanisms
include the following:
§ Gender focal point mechanisms across the different rungs of Government
§ Inter-agency mechanisms in the executive branch of Government, tasked to
monitor or implement plans for women
§ Research centers or networks that support policy and advocacy efforts for gender
equality
§ Parliamentary/legislative committees that initiate or review pertinent legislations
§ Government and non-governmental organization’s collaborative councils
§ Various response mechanisms to violence against women
§ Agencies promoting gender equality at work, in trade and industry
§ Institutions that provide training, financial and/or technical assistance
§ Gender ombud in human rights commissions
§ Mechanisms set up in local areas for the promotion and implementation of
programmes for women and gender equality
§ Women’s organizations that liaise between the national machinery and specific
sectors of women at subnational levels, including at the grass roots level
These mechanisms will be described in more details in relation to their functions in following
sections.
E. Roles and functions of national mechanisms
The national machineries perform multiple roles and functions in pursuit of advancing
women’s concerns and attaining gender equality. This may be indicative of the complex
issues covered by gender equality goals, or in some instances, it may be a reflection of other
ministries feeling inadequately equipped in pursuing this objective. The following tasks are
usually the responsibility of national machineries in Asia and the Pacific.
1. Oversee mainstreaming gender with regard to national policies and programmes
A majority of the national women’s machineries serve as coordinating mechanisms that
formulate and recommend policy proposals and plans on women and gender concerns to their
respective Governments. Their roles include the following: lead agency for initiating and
coordinating governmental efforts in gender mainstreaming; planning and overall
coordination of various matters related to the promotion of gender equality; formulation of
policies for women’s welfare and empowerment; and preparation of gender equality and
women and development plans.
Among the countries or territories whose machineries belong to this category are Australia,
Bhutan, Cambodia, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Iran, Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
Maldives, Mongolia, Pakistan, Republic of Korea, Samoa, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Viet Nam and Hong Kong, China. While Hong Kong, China and Macao, China are
21
governed by the basic laws of China, they continue to maintain their position as developers
of long term visions and strategies for the development and advancement of women in their
respective territories. India and the Republic of Korea, in turn, exercise strong influence in
devising laws within the legislative branch of the Government.
Machineries with multiple concerns have to review and recommend policies, actions and
legislation pertaining not only to women, but also to children and families. These include
Bangladesh’s Ministry of Women and Children, Bhutan’s National Commission for Women
and Children and the National Working Committee on Women and Children of China. In
addition, the mandates of the machineries of Iran, Malaysia, Nepal, the Solomon Islands, Sri
Lanka, and Thailand include programmes for children and families.
A concern raised by women advocates regarding these machineries is that women’s issues
might get sidelined. This was the experience of the Republic of Korea. It reverted from the
Ministry of Gender Equality and Family back to the Ministry of Gender Equality after it was
observed that women’s concerns were getting marginalized within a “women-within-thefamily” framework.
Gender machineries in the following countries act as oversight mechanisms in the
implementation of the National Programme of Action: Fiji, Lao People’s Democratic
Republic, Malaysia, Mongolia, New Zealand, Philippines, the Republic of Korea, the
Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tonga and Viet Nam.
2. Advise the cabinet, prime minster or president on gender equality
Several machineries serve as advisers or consultative bodies on women and gender equality.
Their functions include:
§ Providing advice to Governments on policies, programmes and other initiatives,
which will promote the rights and welfare of women
§ Recommending the formulation or amendment of laws, policies and regulations on
women and gender equality
§ Advising the Prime Minister on developing and monitoring the implementation of
national plans for gender equality and the advancement of women
Mechanisms with these functions include those of Afghanistan, Australia, Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Maldives, Mongolia, Nepal,
Pakistan, Tuvalu and Viet Nam, as well as Hong Kong, China, and Macao, China. Australia
and Viet Nam advise their prime ministers on the implementation of national plans for the
advancement of women. They provide analysis and evaluation of gender sensitive initiatives
and policies.
Other machineries act as secretariats of Inter-Ministerial Councils. The Gender and
Development Services of Cook Islands is the Secretariat of the Island Women Council and
CEDAW Working Group; Japan’s Gender Equality Bureau acts as the Secretariat of the
Council for Gender Equality; and the Women’s Desk of Singapore acts as the Secretariat to
the Inter-Ministry Committee on CEDAW to facilitate work on the implementation of the
Convention.
3. Coordinate and collaborate in the implementation of women’s programmes
Since most of the national women’s machineries are small in size and have limited resources
compared to other agencies of the same level (e.g. ministries), they have to rely on
collaborative and coordinated efforts in gender policy development, implementation of
programmes, and delivery of services for the advancement of women. They work with
22
different government agencies, non-governmental organizations, peoples’ organizations,
partner agencies and other stakeholders, on the national, regional or international levels.
Coordination could be horizontal among ministries, bureaus or departments, or vertical –
from the top levels of government down to the provincial or district gender focal points.
Some of their tasks include:
§ Managing, administrating and implementing development projects and action
programmes for gender equality
§ Coordinating gender mainstreaming activities among line ministries, and coordinating
the implementation of national policies at the regional and subnational levels
§ Providing technical advice and services to ministries, departments, government
agencies and local governments on strategies for mainstreaming gender and
development
§ Providing practical strategies and legislative options to promote women’s
participation in economic, social and political programmes
Mechanisms undertaking coordinative work in the implementation of programmes for
women include the machineries of Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei,
Cambodia, China, Cook Islands, Fiji, India, Indonesia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Japan,
Malaysia, Maldives, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, the Republic of Korea,
Singapore, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tonga, Tuvalu and Viet Nam, as well
as Hong Kong, China and Macao, China.
4. Implement services related to women’s welfare
Almost all of the machineries and mechanisms are responsible for the implementation and
monitoring of programmes and services that are related to the welfare of women. They act on
their own, or with the support of other agencies, including donor agencies. These services
include the following: providing financial assistance; emergency relief; protection,
counselling, welfare assistance, temporary shelter, entrepreneurial assistance to victims of
gender based violence and other victimized women; providing educational guidance, training
and temporary shelter to women who are destitute, elderly, widowed, divorced, disabled or
victims of natural disasters; and promoting legal protection for women from gender based
violence, exploitation and discriminatory practices.
5. Assure compliance with international commitments
§ Assist governments in the implementation of international commitments
§ Act as the monitoring mechanism for harmonizing government policies and
programmes with international programmes on women
National mechanisms monitor the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of all
Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action,
and other international instruments and commitments related to women’s empowerment and
gender equality. Examples are the national machineries of Brunei Darussalam, Bhutan, the
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Papua New Guinea, the Republic of Korea,
Singapore, Samoa, Timor-Leste and Viet Nam as well as Hong Kong, China. In addition,
national machineries are responsible for the timely submission of periodic country reports.
For instance, Japan’s Gender Equality Bureau compiles the annual report or white paper on
the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination
against Women.
6. Monitor, assess and update plans and programmes
Some machineries (such as in Brunei, Cambodia, Cook Islands, Indonesia, Nepal, Maldives,
Myanmar, the Republic of Korea and Viet Nam), act as monitoring mechanisms for
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harmonizing local initiatives with national development objectives. Other machineries assist
in harmonizing their Government’s policies with international programmes on women
(Australia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, New Zealand, Pakistan and Singapore), or
in harmonizing their Government’s commitments and policies on gender and development
(the Philippines and New Zealand). Some national machineries also assist in harmonizing
their human rights system with international standards (Australia, the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea and Pakistan).
7. Increase awareness and perform an advocacy role for gender equality
Almost all mechanisms are responsible for the dissemination of information on existing laws,
on various United Nations conventions and on agreements related to rights and gender
equality. This work includes:
§ Providing gender-consciousness raising programmes on women’s rights
§ Publicizing and promoting laws, policies and programmes on gender equal
§ Undertaking advocacy on women’s human rights
§ Advocating for the promotion of the woman’s role in the family
§ Promoting their respective country’s thrust on women and gender equality at national
and international levels
8. Develop partnerships with women’s groups
Some machineries engage in active partnerships and networking with civil society and nongovernmental organizations for planning and implementing programmes and policies. They
include those in Australia, the Cook Islands, Indonesia, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan,
the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, the Solomon Islands, Thailand, TimorLeste, Tonga, and Viet Nam. Partners include subnational women’s rights advocacy groups,
livelihood organizations, and other formations that support, promote or benefit from state-run
programmes.
9. Distinct functions of machineries
The machineries also report some distinct functions that they play in relation to gender and
women’s concerns. Examples of these functions are as follows:
§ Advocating women’s human rights and gender-responsive development
(Australia, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, Philippines, the Republic of Korea
and Viet Nam as well as Macao, China)
§ Promoting women’s participation in development, expanding women’s
participation in society and improving their economic status (Australia,
Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Iran, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar,
Papua New Guinea, Pakistan, Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Viet Nam and
Macao, China)
§ Promoting their country’s position on women and gender equality at national and
international levels (Afghanistan, Australia, Japan, Pakistan, Philippines, the
Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor-Leste and Viet Nam);
§ Promoting and upholding traditions, lineage, culture and religion (Cook Islands,
Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Myanmar)
§ Promoting work-family balance, which includes the effective sharing of
responsibilities in the family, in the political and economic spheres, as well as in
the social and cultural spheres (Iran (Islamic Republic of), Malaysia, Pakistan, the
Republic of Korea, Thailand and Viet Nam as well as Macao, China)
§ Informing about data and knowledge management on women (Cook Islands,
Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Mongolia, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, Viet
Nam and Macao, China)
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Promoting women' s contributions in different areas through scientific and expert
studies (Australia, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of) Japan, Pakistan, the
Philippines, the Republic of Korea and Viet Nam)
Organizing women’s groups (Cambodia, the Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar and Viet Nam)
Providing technical assistance on gender and development (the Philippines)
Supporting governmental and non-government organizations’ women related
concerns (Cook Islands, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Pakistan, the Philippines, the
Republic of Korea, Thailand and Viet Nam)
Serving as focal points in international cooperation on gender equality and
women’s concerns (Australia, Bhutan, Cambodia, Japan, the Philippines, New
Zealand and Viet Nam)
The extent to which one function predominates varies from country to country, depending on
the type of the mechanism (e.g. advisory or supervisory), its level of authority (as part of the
Office of the Prime Minister, President or Cabinet Office; an independent organization; or
part of a larger ministry) and the nature of its linkages with other mechanisms (laterally
and/or downwards to sub-national levels).
F. Gender focal points
Gender focal points in different levels of government, act as support mechanisms to national
machineries for women and are an important instrument for the realization of the goals of
policies and plans for women and gender equality. They coordinate planning and the
implementation of policies and selected strategies across government bureaucracy. At the
same time, they serve as consultative mechanisms, linking national plans downward to lower
levels of governance and constituent groups, while being accountable upward to the national
machinery for the implementation and monitoring of plans.
In some countries, there can be more than one type of gender focal point in place. For
instance, China maintains a multi-level network of focal points with different responsibilities
as follows:
§ Office for Workers, Youth and Women under the Standing Committee of National
People’s Congress receives and studies reports on development of women and
children
§ Working Group of Women and Children under the National Committee of the
Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference accepts proposals on protection of
women and children
§ National Joint Committee for Protecting Women and Children’s Legal Rights under
the Standing Committee of National People’s Congress investigates the
implementation of relevant laws and strengthens interdepartmental coordination and
cooperation
Contrary to China’s system of a multi-level network of gender focal points, Bangladesh only
maintains two gender focal points in its governmental structure, one in the executive arm and
one in the legislative arm of Government:
§ The Women in Development focal points in the Planning Commission consists of 96
members, coordinated by the Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs
§ The Department of Women Affairs implements different programmes to empower
women at the grass-roots level in 64 districts and 396 Upazillas
§ The Parliamentary Standing Committee for Women assists in the formulation of
national policies; encourages discussion, cooperation and collaboration among the
members of Parliament on matters related to women’s affairs and gender equality;
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and organizes dialogues at the constituency level on the implementation of gender and
development projects
In Cambodia, the Technical Working Group on Gender acts within the framework of the
Royal Government of Cambodia’s Action Plan on Harmonization and Alignment: 20042008. As such, it has links to two gender focal points on the central level, and gender focal
points functioning at lower levels of governance:
§ Gender Mainstreaming Action Groups which lend support to gender focal points in
line ministries
§ Government Donor Consultative Committee which promotes aid effectiveness to
produce a streamlined and harmonized approach to sector level planning and its
implementation
In Thailand, there are two types of gender focal points situated in all line ministries, which
take charge of developing the master plan on the promotion of gender equality: the Chief
Gender Equality Promotion Offices at the ministerial level and the gender focal points at the
departmental level.
G. Roles of other national mechanisms for gender equality
To facilitate the process of gender mainstreaming, separate agencies have recently been
instituted across the region to address specific aspects of national plans. They function as
consultative or monitoring mechanisms, regulatory bodies, legislative committees, complaint
and redress mechanisms, or investigative bodies. Their functions include the following:
§ Execution of programmes and projects linked to the nation’s gender equality or
women’s empowerment plans - This category includes groups in ministries or offices
outside of the national machineries, but which collaborate with them in the
implementation of gender equality policies, plans or programmes
§ Coordination across government agencies – Refers to mechanisms that review or
monitor the implementation of laws, policies and plans for gender equality, such as
the National Joint Committee for Protecting Women and Children’s Legal Rights in
China or The Women’s Office in Nauru
§ Initiation and/or review of legislation on women/gender equality –Mechanisms
lodged in legislatures or parliaments, working with national machineries for the
formulation and enactment of pertinent laws. One example is the Committee on
Women and Children of the National Assembly of Bhutan
§ Addressing violence against women through planning, inter-agency coordination, or
direct services – In different countries, there are advisory and planning mechanisms,
collaborative networks and direct service agencies that deal with violence against
women and children. Thus, more than one office may be focused on this issue in a
particular country. Examples are the Domestic Violence Unit, Samoa Ministry of
Police and Corrections Services and the National Centre for Women and Children,
Tonga
§ Advocacy and training on gender equality, women’s rights and gender mainstreaming
- These mechanisms provide training and information to promote specific rights of
women, such as The Indonesian Center for Women in Politics or the Alliance Against
Trafficking in Women and Children in Nepal
§ Planning, reviewing and monitoring of governmental programmes – In some nations,
multi-stakeholder groups have been organized as advisory or monitoring mechanisms
for the protection and promotion of women’s rights, such as: Special Committee on
Women and Family Issues, Brunei Darussalam; CEDAW Partnership Committee,
Samoa; National Advisory Committee on Gender and Development, Tonga; and
National Women’s Coordinating and Advisory Committee, Vanuatu
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Hearing complaints on violence against women and other forms of discrimination as
human rights commissions – One trend has been for cases of sex discrimination and
other offenses against women to be the responsibility of a country's Human Rights
Commission, but with a separate unit or commissioner assigned to hear these cases.
Mechanisms in Asia-Pacific that are performing this function include the Office of the
Ombudsman for Human Rights and Justice, Timor-Leste as well as the Equal
Opportunity Commission, Hong Kong, China; and the Commission against
Corruption, Macao, China
Direct services for women – There are mechanisms that act to assist women in small
businesses, such as the National Credit Fund for Women in India and the Indonesian
Association of Women Entrepreneurs. The Women’s Service Centres in Malaysia are
‘one-stop shops’ in states and districts for counseling, training and information on
women’s programmes
Promotion and protection of women at work – Some mechanisms function to provide
sex-disaggregated data and develop policies, programmes and services that promote
and protect women in work settings. These mechanisms include the Bureau of
Women and Young Workers, the Philippines; Equal Opportunity for Women in the
Workplace Agency, Office of Work and Family, Social Inclusion Board, Australia;
Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Office of
Small and Medium Enterprises Promotion of the Ministry of Industry, Thailand
Development of a gender-responsive statistical data base and other gender research
resources – There are separate mechanisms which have been created for the specific
purpose of conducting gender research and developing a statistical database on
women and gender concerns that can be used in planning and policy development.
Such mechanisms include the Inter-ministerial Working Group on Gender and
Statistics, Afghanistan; Center for Women’s Studies, the Islamic Republic of Iran and
Gender Centre for Sustainable Development, Mongolia
Promotion of a country’s programmes on women and gender equality at local levels –
Mechanisms exist in local or subnational levels of governance, which are primarily
responsible for the promotion, monitoring or implementation of women and gender
policies/programmes. These include the Women’s Development Corporation, India
and Women Development Departments, provincial level, Pakistan
Serving as the gender focal point in international cooperation – There are mechanisms
consisting of representatives of donor agencies, which are organized to plan support
for national initiatives. These mechanisms include: the Advisory Group on Gender,
Afghanistan; Official Development Assistance Gender and Development Network,
United Nations Gender Mainstreaming Committee, Philippines; Thai Women Watch
and Friends of Women Foundation, Thailand
H. Roles of women’s organizations
Women’s organizations that serve as national mechanisms enable women to take part in
affairs concerning them. This can be achieved in the following ways:
§ Representing organized women in the state machinery, for example, the Lao
Women’s Union, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Regional Family Violence
Working Groups, Singapore, Viet Nam Women’s Union, Viet Nam
§ Promoting the implementation of state policy on equality between women and men,
and national programmes for the development of women and children, such as the
National Women’s Alliances, Australia; Council of Women of Brunei Darussalam,
All China Women’s Federation; National Council of Women Organizations,
Malaysia; Lao Women’s Union, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic
§ Training, organizing and mobilizing women’s groups, for example, the Indonesian
Women Congress, Indonesia; Women’s Integration Network Council under the
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People’s Association, Singapore; Vois Blong Mere Solomons, the Solomon Islands;
and Viet Nam Women’s Union, Viet Nam
Engaging in consultations with women’s groups such as the National Women’s
Alliance of Australia and the Nauru Women’s National Council to ensure that their
issues are brought to governments and are publicly discussed
I. Regional mechanisms
On the regional plane, there are mechanisms that enable gender mechanisms from different
countries to interact, discuss common and unique issues, exchange research findings and
share best practices for gender mainstreaming and gender equality advocacy. Among these
regional formations are the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), which counts
among its member the economies of North and East Asia, South-East Asia, Australia and
New Zealand; the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN); the Secretariat of the
Pacific Community (SPC), an international organization that provides technical assistance,
policy advice, training and research services to 22 Pacific Island countries and territories, and
the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
In terms of being an avenue for collaborative action on gender equality, the Asia-Pacific
economies and their national machineries are represented in the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation Gender Focal Point Network,which is tasked to provide expert advice and
technical support to both Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation committees and economies for
the implementation of the Framework for the Integration of Women in Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation. The Gender Focal Point Network meets annually, implements a
three-year work plan to promote the framework, and provides training on gender analysis for
members of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.
National machineries are represented in meetings of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations Committee Women’s Network. In 1988, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations’
Foreign Ministers adopted the Declaration on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN. The
Women’s Network meets annually and carries out the coordination and monitoring of key
regional priorities and cooperation on women’s concerns and issues within the region. It
monitors progress on the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women in the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations Region and the Declaration Against Trafficking in
Persons Particularly Women and Children. In November 2006, the Joint Statement and
Commitment to Implement Gender Mainstreaming was adopted at the High-Level Meeting
on Gender Mainstreaming within the Context of the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Beijing Platform for Action and the Millennium
Development Goals (ASEAN, 2009). The Association of Southeast Asian Nations is
currently finalizing the Terms of Reference for the establishment of a Commission on the
Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Women and Children. It is also undertaking an
Asia Regional Trafficking in Persons Project, with the objective of facilitating a more
efficient and coordinated approach to trafficking by the criminal justice system of
participating governments.
The Secretariat of the Pacific Community recognizes the critical importance of addressing
gender issues in development. At its second Gender and Development Partners Meeting in
July 2009, participants adopted the Pacific Regional Gender and Development Partners
Cooperation Framework. The framework provides a matrix of the gender mandates of
development partners, and charts current and ongoing gender activities linked to regional
frameworks, such as the revised 2004 Pacific Platform for Action on Advancement of
Women and Gender Equality and The Pacific Plan. The framework is envisioned as a
mechanism for enhancing coordination and collaboration among the 22 Pacific Island
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countries. It encourages partners to work more closely in supporting national Governments
and to identify areas or gaps that need greater attention and resources (SPC, 2009).
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation was founded in 1985 by the Heads of
State of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka as a platform
for the people of South Asia to work together in order to accelerate the process of economic
and social development in member States. Women’s issues have figured prominently in the
agenda of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation from its inception. The
promotion of gender equality is among its principles and objectives, and a regional plan of
action on women has been formulated. In January 2002, South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation adopted a Regional Convention on Combating the Crime of
Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution. It calls for cooperation among member
States in dealing with various aspects of prevention, interdiction and suppression of
trafficking in women and children for prostitution, and with the repatriation and rehabilitation
of the victims of trafficking.
During the eleventh summit of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation in 2002,
the SAARC Autonomous Women's Advocacy Group (SAWAG) was formed. Its function is
to advocate for gender mainstreaming, and to make recommendations on gender related
issues and programmes such as women's citizenship, women's political representation,
trafficking and sexual exploitation, gender and HIV/AIDS, female education and literacy,
legal rights and economic empowerment and the impact of globalization on women
(SAARC, 2009). Through a memorandum of understanding with the United Nations
Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the SAARC Gender Database: Mapping Progress
of Women in the South Asia Region has been established. Information from this resource is
to be used for the generation of a comprehensive report on the progress of South Asian
women; the tabulation of existing empowerment strategies along with their impacts, so as to
more effectively determine future strategies; and for the analysis of good practices to
empower women and end gender discrimination in South Asian nations (SAARC Gender
Info Base, 2008).
J. Composition of national mechanisms
National machineries for women, including ministries, advisory committees and
commissions, tend to be small and compact organizations which may not be functionally
differentiated downwards. For example, the New Zealand Ministry of Women's Affairs is the
smallest core New Zealand government agency, staffed by less than 40 people. Bhutan’s
National Commission for Women and Children is headed by an Executive Director and
managed by ten members spread across six divisions. Iran’s Center for Women and Family
Affairs promotes women’s contribution in different areas through scientific and expert
studies, and provides legislature and government practical strategies to encourage women’s
participation. It has only 70 employees, 39 of whom are on the professional staff.
Inter-agency committees that function as mechanisms are flat organizations with high-level
representation from different ministries or departments. This is the case in Cambodia, China,
Japan, Lao Democratic People’s Republic and Mongolia. Thus, the National Working
Committee on Children and Women under the State Council of China is made up of
Ministers from 33 ministries and commissions. The Queen is the Honorary President of the
Cambodian National Council for Women and the Minister of Women’s Affairs of the
President. Its membership includes 21 Secretaries of Government, the Deputy President for
National Authorities against HIV, the Deputy President for the Committee of Cambodia’s
Human Rights and the Secretary General for the Cambodian Council for Children. They are
assisted by a secretariat as fulltime staff.
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Mechanisms lodged in ministries have fulltime staff working under separate departments
with fully differentiated functions. If these organizations work only at the national level, they
are relatively small, staffed with between 70 to 300 personnel. In instances where the
mechanism have functions replicated downward to local levels of governance, the staffing
patterns increase in number and differentiation. For example, the Child and Women
Development Section of the Ministry of Women, Children and Social Welfare in Nepal has
only 80 personnel, more than half of who are in clerical positions. Thailand’s Office of
Women’s Affairs and Family Development is a department in the Ministry of Social
Development and Human Security which had a staff of 245 in 2008.
Cambodia’s National Machinery (Ministry of Women Affairs) is differentiated downwards to
sub-national levels. It has a staff of 250 based in Phnom Penh, Viet Nam and around 1000 in
24 provinces. Afghanistan’s Ministry of Women’s Affairs had a total staff of 1268 in 2005,
based in Kabul and 28 provinces.
K. Resources for gender mainstreaming
A national plan for gender or women’s development is usually the basis for gender
mainstreaming. It is most often designed to respond to the recommendations of the
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Beijing Declaration and
Platform for Action, or other national goals and directions. Other policies may articulate the
functions and authority of the national mechanism and provide a budget and other forms of
support to the organization. Legislative support for the promotion of gender equality has also
taken place in many of the nations of Asia and the Pacific. This will be described in greater
detail in the next chapter.
1. Policy framework
In Asian countries, a plan for the advancement of women is usually in place, and provides the
directions that gender mainstreaming will take. These plans have been given various names,
but all are concerned with gender mainstreaming.
In Pakistan, the National Policy for Development and Empowerment of Women identifies
strategic objectives and specific actions in the 12 priority areas of the Beijing Platform for
Action, and added ‘women and girls with disabilities’ as a thirteenth area of concern. The
deadline for plan implement is 2013. The National Action Plan for Women of Afghanistan is
a ten year national action plan (2007-2017), which integrates all its gender equality
commitments within a single implementation framework. It focuses on six priority areas of
concern: security; legal protection and human rights; leadership and political participation;
economy, work and poverty; health care and education. The National Plan of Action for
Gender of Bhutan takes into account key gender issues that are central to the Bhutanese
context. It is a pioneering effort to facilitate and guide mainstreaming gender into all future
policies, plans and programmes in the country. The nation plan has been adopted by the
government as a guideline for mainstreaming gender in different sectors. The conduct of
awareness programs on gender continues to be a thrust of the National Commission for
Women and Children activities in its tenth five-year plan.
The Philippine Plan for Gender Responsive Development, a rolling plan for the period of
1995-2025, translates provisions in international commitments into specific programmes and
policy measures for women’s empowerment and gender equality. The document identifies
strategies for particular areas of concern, which are to be implemented by the Government in
partnership with other stakeholders. The National Strategy for the Advancement of
Vietnamese Women identifies gender mainstreaming in public policy as one of the main
measures for implementation until 2010. In this regard, all central ministries and agencies, as
well as provinces and cities, have been given the responsibility of gender mainstreaming.
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The Second Basic Plan for Gender Equality in Japan was approved by the Cabinet in 2005. It
lays out 12 important fields and long-term policy directions until 2020. In particular, the
basic plan establishes a numeric target to promote the expansion of women’s participation in
policy decision making processes. The measures set forth in the basic plan have been steadily
promoted by each ministry through the enrichment of the legal system and the
implementation of policy measures. The National Programme for Gender Equality of
Mongolia (2003-2015) addresses the 12 critical areas of concern of the Beijing Platform for
Action. It consists of five parts, which address gender equality – in family relations, in
economic relations, regarding rural development, at the decision-making level, and in
national machinery and civil society participation.
In the Pacific nations, national action plans for women have been formulated in almost all of
the countries listed under this subregion. Among them are the following: Cook Islands’
National Policy on Women, Fiji’s The Women’s Plan of Action (2009 – 2018), The Action
Plan for New Zealand Women, the National Women’s Policy of the Solomon Islands, the
National Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women in Samoa (2008-2012), the National
Women’s Policy of the Solomon Islands, and the National Policy on Gender and
Development of Tonga.
The Action Plan for New Zealand Women for the period 2004-2009, represented a holistic
governmental approach to improving outcomes for women in three priority areas: economic
sustainability, work-life balance and well-being. The Ministry for Women’s Affairs led and
coordinated work on the implementation of the action plan, but other government agencies
were made responsible for implementing the majority of actions. In Samoa, the Draft
National Policy for Women (2007 – 2017) highlights issues on the advancement of women
and on achieving gender equality to be addressed within a ten year period. To support its
implementation, a National Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women (2008-2012) was
formulated. Government ministries are tasked to identify the activities that would contribute
to the achievement of the five year plan. Coordination and monitoring of the implementation
of the policy is done by the Division for Women, the Ministry of Women, and Community
and Social Development through the CEDAW Partnership Committee.
Australia does not have a single national plan for women or gender equality. Instead, it
applies a “whole-of-government” approach, and institutes policy and legislative reforms in
key areas of concern: violence against women, health, education, employment, decisionmaking and political participation. It identifies two instruments used for promoting gender
equality: the Women’s Budget Statement and the National Plan to Reduce Violence Against
Women and their Children. The Sex Discrimination Act 1984 also continues to be the
overriding legislation for making discrimination against women unlawful in Australia.
2. Incorporating gender in national development plans
Gender mainstreaming as a development target has been incorporated in the national
development plans of several countries of the region. For example, in Indonesia’s National
Medium-Term Development Plan (2004-2009), gender mainstreaming is a key goal included
in order to establish an Indonesia that is just and democratic. In Malaysia, a special chapter
on women and development was part of the Sixth Malaysia Plan, which resulted in
administrative policies “becoming more gender-aware” (CEDAW, Malaysia, 2004). The
Sixth National Development Plan and Vision 2020 of the Maldives incorporates gender as a
cross-cutting issue. The Women’s Plan of Action (2009-2018) of the Department of Women,
Fiji, is closely aligned with the National Development Plan of Fiji, and is guided by the
principles enshrined in the Strategic Framework for Change with the vision of building “A
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Better Fiji for All”. Progress in achieving the goals of the Women’s Plan of Action will hinge
on the contribution of Government and its development partners, who have collectively
agreed to this plan.
3. Sex-disaggregated data
Sex-disaggregated data is essential for undertaking gender analysis in connection with the
preparation of gender plans and other programmes to benefit women. According to the
ESCAP database, gender statistics have been installed in at least the following Asia-Pacific
countries: Australia, Bangladesh, China, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, the
Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam (ESCAP 2009b). The Republic of Korea and Singapore
also report having established sex-disaggregated data bases.
Sex-disaggregated data have been analyzed in relation to the following dimensions of
inequality: ethnicity, religion, caste, location, age, poverty and employment status. Different
methods of data collection have been applied, such as censuses, surveys, community-based
monitoring systems and time-use surveys, and measures of unpaid work.
4. Gender budgets and other allocations for gender equality
Gender-responsive budgeting has a long history in the Asia and the Pacific region. The
Australian Government was the first to introduce a Women’s Budget in 1984, followed by
the Philippines in 1995 and Sri Lanka in 1998 (Bartle, 2002). In more recent years, the
allocation of separate funds for gender equality programmes has been reported by
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines,
the Republic of Korea, Thailand ,Viet Nam and Hong Kong, China in Asia; Australia, Fiji
and Marshall Islands in the Pacific (Guha and Goswami, 2006).
Nevertheless, there are few and inconsistent forms of reporting on specific amounts and/or
proportions of a nation's public spending budget allocated to women and gender equality
projects.
In Japan, the budget for gender equality represents 9.2 percent of its total budgetary outlay
for 2009 (Ministry of Finance, Japan, December 2008). In Australia, the expenditures
earmarked for gender equality initiatives in 2009 amount to approximately 12 percent of the
Australian Government’s total budget (Australian Government, accessed 2009). Other reports
provide the following information on the share of the gender equality budget in the national
budget: Bhutan, 1.2 percent; Cambodia, 0.06 percent; Malaysia, 0.018 percent; the
Philippines, 0.21 percent; the Republic of Korea, 0.03 percent (Kang, 2009), (Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women State Party Reports and
response to the ESCAP Beijing+15 Questionnaire).
In the developing nations of the region, the small allocations obligated by Governments for
gender equality programmes do not sufficiently enable national mechanisms to completely
fund their plans and projects. Thus, government budgets have been supplemented by overseas
development assistance, in the form of bilateral loans or grants, or as part of United Nations’
assistance programmes.
In Afghanistan, the Gender Donor Coordination Group acts as the mechanism to coordinate
donor support to the Government in the areas of monitoring budgeting and piloting of the
National Action Plan for Women of Afghanistan at the subnational level. In Timor-Leste, a
number of international agencies have pooled US$4,955,000 to subsidize the 2008 to 2011
programme, Supporting Gender Equality and Women’s Rights. Another pooled multi-donor
fund is the Transitional Support Program III of Timor-Leste.
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In Sri Lanka, donor agencies have supported women’s programmes since the United Nations
International Decade for Women. These tend to focus on specific areas such as skills training,
food-for-work programs, and gender and reproductive health. The Norwegian Agency for
Development Cooperation has been the principal supporter of the national machinery lodged
in the Ministry of Child Development and Women's Empowerment. Its interest has chiefly
been in supporting rehabilitation programmes in conflict-affected areas; the promotion of
peace, reconciliation, ethnic harmony, human rights, democracy and economic development
programmes. Other agencies support activities by women’s organizations in such areas as law
reform, research, credit and savings, rural development, agriculture, environment, plantation
women, crisis centers, capacity building, the mobilization of women, peace building and
networking.
In North Asia, Mongolia’s gender equality plans and programmes have also benefited from
Overseas Development Assistance, which has provided support for the implementation of the
National Program for Advancement of Mongolian Women. The United Nations Development
Fund provided funding for a training package on Capacity Building for Gender-Sensitive
Budgeting, in order to enable the Government to analyze and organize budgeting from a
gender perspective.
Gender mainstreaming and other gender equality programmes of the following nations have
also benefited from United Nations assistance and/or from bilateral funds: Bhutan,
Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Maldives,
Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam and the Pacific island
countries.
IV. Main areas of focus of national mechanisms
A. Priority issues
At a meeting of ESCAP member States in Indonesia in 2005, representatives of national
machineries for women identified critical issues and problems, which have serious
implications for promoting women’s rights. The participants committed to address the issues
in the period after the Beijing Plus 10 Review (ESCAP, 12-14 December 2005). The issues,
followed by recommendations, are listed below:
§ Impact of globalization on women, particularly migration for work and trafficking in
persons
Ø Analyze the impact on, and opportunities of, globalization for women. Promote
gender and rights-based approaches to address the emerging challenges of women
migrant workers, and eradicate the demand side of trafficking in persons.
§ Elimination of all forms of violence against women
Ø Ensure greater efforts to effectively prevent and eliminate all forms of violence
against women of all ages.
Ø Enact and implement laws and policies on the elimination of violence against
women through, plans of actions, national strategies and mechanisms, budget
allocation and monitoring and evaluation systems.
§ Women and natural disaster management
Ø Integrate a gender perspective and recognize the gender dynamic in all responses
to disaster situations in natural disaster management.
Ø Take into account the practical and strategic gender needs linked to disasters, in a
comprehensive and integrated manner.
§ Partnership with non-governmental organizations and civil society
33
Ø Strengthen partnerships between Governments, non-governmental organizations
and other civil society groups in the region, to enhance national ownership of
gender mainstreaming.
The same issues emerged at the Sixth South Asia Regional Ministrerial Conference
Commemorating Beijing (17-18 January 2008), as well as at the High-Level Meeting on
Beiing Plus 15 under ESCAP (November 2009). In addition to these priority issues, member
States remain committed to the implementation of other critical areas of concern as
mentioned in the Beijing Platform for Action, such as promoting gender equality in education
and increasing the participation of women in decision-making, particularly in politics and
public adminstration. Strategies and measures pertinent to these concerns, and reported by
some of the countries in the region over the past five years, will be reviewed in this section.
B. Globalization, poverty and economic opportunities
To enable women to access the benefits of globalization, and to offset the threats of poverty
and employment discrimination, many national mechanisms have instituted policies and
programmes for the development of small and medium enterprises. This usually includes
employment laws and policies, vocational and practical skills training for women,
entrepreneurship education, microfinance, and access to markets.
Several countries have introduced measures to ensure equality of work opportunities.
Australia created a statutory authority, the Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace
Agency, to support apprentices, trainees and students in higher education. Fiji instituted an
Equal Employment Opportunity Policy in the Fiji Public Service. The Republic of Korea
passed the Act on Promotion of Economic Activities of Career–Interrupted Women in 2008
to provide employment support to women whose careers were put on hold or discontinued
completely due to childbirth or other unpaid care work. Viet Nam’s Labor Law aims to
ensure good working conditions and economic benefits for women labourers, and sets up a
legal basis to protect women in labour transactions. It also provides administrative
punishment for violations of these provisions of the Labour Law.
In China, networks for rural women have been initiated and developed to provide education
and training, technology demonstrations, information services, cooperative businesses,
poverty alleviation, relief and assistance. Unemployed women are given access to free
consultations and information about job vacancies to improve their chances of being reemployed. In Bangladesh, the Vulnerable Group Development Programme targets very poor,
mainly rural women who have no productive assets and are heads of households.
To support female entrepreneurs, the Japanese Government runs a project to introduce
women with little entrepreneurial experience to mentors who provide advice on management
and other business matters. Moreover, a dedicated website is in place to provide information
on entrepreneurship. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, women’s roles in investment and
cooperative-based careers are being encouraged. The Samoan Government, in partnership
with local women’s organizations and the Development Bank of Samoa, provides microcredit
support to women who are unemployed or unable to access credit from banks to support their
businesses. The Samoan Ministry of Women, Community and Social Development runs the
programme.
1. Balancing work-family responsibilities
An interesting development has been the introduction of policies to promote a balance
between work and family life. Singapore has a Marriage and Parenthood package, which
includes longer maternity leave, extended childcare and infant care leave for both parents,
infant and childcare subsidies and financial support for the family. Likewise, Japan lends
34
support to the efforts of men and women to find harmony between work, family and
community life with, The Charter for Work-Life Balance, an Action Policy for Promoting
Work-Life Balance and Japan's Strategy to Support Children and Family, all of which enable
both women and men to balance work, family and community life.
The Japanese Government has also introduced a number of measures to assist single-mothers,
victims of domestic violence, people with unstable employment and foreigners living in
Japan (Box I).
Box I. Strategies to promote women’s employment in Japan
Several innovative approaches have been introduced in Japan to promote the economic
empowerment of women living under difficult circumstances.
As part of the Law for the Welfare of Mothers with Dependents and Widows, the
Japanese Government is developing comprehensive measures to enable single-mothers to
become self-reliant, by:
§ providing support for child-rearing and daily living
§ assisting with employment
§ establishing childcare costs consultation centers
§ providing child rearing allowances
§ establishing the Mothers with Dependents and Widows Loan Fund
The Policy Package to Address Economic Crisis approved by the Government in April
2009 includes measures to support single mothers in acquiring qualifications and support
for working from home, as part of efforts to enhance support to single-parent households.
For persons who have left employment to engage in unpaid activities such as childrearing or nursing care, but seek to return to employment in the future, the Government is
implementing a variety of assistance packages, including:
§ public employment security offices called Mother’s Hello Work, for persons seeking
to re-enter employment while child-rearing
§ seminars and information on employment opportunities
§ meetings with career consultants
C. Migration and trafficking
Many countries have developed legal provisions to deal with trafficking. For instance, in
2005, Japan enacted the Law Concerning Partial Amendment to the Penal Code, which
amongst other things, promulgates measures for dealing with cross-border trafficking in
persons. In June 2005, the Government also implemented amendments to the Immigration
Control and Refugee Recognition Act, to include a definition of trafficking in persons. It
clarifies that victims of trafficking are eligible to be granted special landing or residence
permission; excludes victims of trafficking from deportation for reason of prostitution or
activities other than those permitted under the previously granted status of residence; and
makes perpetrators of trafficking in persons subject to the denial of landing permission and to
possible deportation.
Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore as well as Macao, China are among other countries
and territories in Asia which have laws that directly address the trafficking of persons.
Congruent with legal measures, governmental plans, inter-agency committees, commissions
and services directed at combatting trafficking have been created. Macao, China set up a
Commission to follow up on the Implementation of Dissuasive Measures Against Trafficking
in Persons. An Inter-Agency Committee against Trafficking in the Philippines monitors the
progress of cases filed, undertakes advocacy and provides training to stakeholders on the law
and related concerns of trafficking in persons.
35
Regional and bilateral agreements have been forged to assist in the repatriation of victims of
trafficking to their countries of origin, and to negotiate for the extension of legal rights and
representation to foreign women who are victims of trafficking. For instance, police officers
and staff of the National Commission on Women and Children in Bhutan attended trainings
on trafficking in New Delhi. They established cross border links with partners outside
Bhutan. There now exists a network, connecting police officers in Bhutan with their
counterparts in neighboring countries in order to better combat human trafficking. Embassies
of the Philippines have Welfare Officers tasked to, attend to the needs of Filipino women and
men who have been victims of trafficking in these receiving countries, represent their
interests in the local courts, and attend to their repatriation.
Regional networking and international cooperation for the prevention of human trafficking
has also transpired through international conferences such as the Regional Ministerial
Conference on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons, and Related Transnational Crimes
and the Asia-Europe Meeting Seminar on Preventing Trafficking in Women and Children
(CEDAW, 2007).
D. Violence against women
Almost all of the countries in the ESCAP region have instituted strategies and programmes to
mitigate and eliminate all forms of violence committed against women and their children.
The principal strategy has been through legislative reform. Apart from legal recourse, other
strategies include shelters, counseling services, 24-hour hotlines allowing victimized women
and other parties to report abuse, free medical and legal assistance, financial assistance,
occupational training, legal and police protection, and information dissemination on
protective laws and on women’s rights through broadcast, print and television media.
In Pakistan, the Criminal Law Act 2004, Code of Criminal (Amendment) Ordinance 2006
and Protection of Women and Criminal Laws (Amendment) Act of 2006, are major
achievements for protection of women’s rights and the elimination of violence against
women. Two bills, entitled Protection against Harassment at Workplace Bill 2009, and the
Criminal Law (Amendment) Bill 2009, are being introduced in the National Assembly. Also,
a Gender Crime Center was set up in the Ministry of Interior to provide protection to the
victims of violence.
In Brunei Darussalam, efforts to render domestic violence illegal are currently in process,
through the strengthening of existing family legislation, and through the strict
implementation of the Penal Code (Chapter 22).
In Japan, the Act on the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims was
strengthened in 2007. At the same time, Japan implemented measures to prevent spousal
violence and to protect victims, while also assisting victims in becoming self-reliant again.
The national machinery in Samoa, through the Gender Based Violence Project, is developing
a Community Facilitation Package on Violence against Women. The package facilitates
learning and understanding of issues surrounding violence, and identifies the strengths and
positive practices within communities that promote the prevention of violence. It creates a
dialogue between community leaders and women, men and young people. In this way, all
parties have a common understanding of how, collectively, they can not only address issues
on violence, but can hopefully prevent violence from occurring.
In the Philippines, the law mandates that all police stations establish Women and Children’s
Protection Desks. Similarly, the Royal Bhutan Police, in collaboration with the National
36
Commission for Women and Children, established the Women and Child Protection Unit to
deal with cases of domestic violence and abuse in five areas. Gender sensitization courses for
law enforcers and other members of the justice system have also been undertaken in other
States, to ensure the enforcement of laws combating violence against women and children.
Advocacy and education activities targeting men and boys have been introduced across the
ESCAP region. These activities promote non-violent relationships with women. In several
countries, male advocates have been organized in collaborative activities with nongovernmental organizations and have been given gender sensitivity training. This training
enables them to communicate, to other men, the importance of reducing violence against
women and children at home and in the community, and to advocate for its total elimination.
Some of these organizations of men working towards the cessation of violence against
women and children are described in Box II.
Box II. Men and boys as advocates against violence against women
§
§
§
§
In Singapore, the Association of Devoted and Active Family Men (ADAM) and
the Centre for Fathering promote mindsets and behaviours for eradicating gender
stereotypes and violence against women, by raising awareness of men’s
responsibilities and roles in society, as fathers, husbands and individual members
of the family.
The theme of the 2008 National Women’s Day in Samoa was ”Men Taking
Action to Eliminate Violence against Women and Children.” A Men Against
Violence Advocacy Group was consequently formed, which is composed of men
who are professionals and have careers at the National level, as well as chiefs and
traditional leaders with strong influence in the villages, and who are in a position
to influence behavioural change and practices against violence in the homes.
The Philippine Commission on Women helped to organize the Men Opposed to
Violence Against Women Everywhere (MOVE) in the Philippines. Headed by
Vice-President de Castro, MOVE is an organization of men who commit
themselves to: (a) speaking out against violence against women; (b) examining,
proposing and formulating male involvement and actions in the elimination of
violence against women; (c) forming partnerships and linkages with similar
groups working on violence against women, locally and internationally; (d)
organizing and conducting research in recognition of the social effects of VAW
for policy and programme development; and (e) establishing a resource network
on violence against women.
Thailand’s Office of Women’s Affairs and Family Development and its partner
organizations holds the White Ribbon Campaign and the Gentlemen against
VAW Campaign in November each year. The campaigns involve the collection
of signatures, as well as the distribution of ‘white ribbon’ necktie pins for men
and boys to wear, as a sign of their commitment to ending violence against
women. The main message of the campaign is that men and boys can, and should,
play a part in the elimination of violence against women by ‘Not Committing,
Not Approving and Not Neglecting’ incidences of violence against women.
E. Women and natural disaster management
Strategies in selected countries of Asia and the Pacific to deal with gender issues linked to
disaster risk managment are usually policy initiatives. At the same time, there is a recognition
that consultation and collaboration are necessary to properly identify and respond to women’s
experiences and needs in times of disaster.
In Samoa, a multi-pronged programme has been instituted to address the impacts of climate
change on women. To begin with, women have been consulted in the development of
37
national strategies and plans for disaster management and disaster risk reduction and have
also taken part in education and awareness programmes in order to minimize the risks and
impact of climate change. In addition, social protection measures established in Samoa
include strategies for risk reduction and capacity building for post disaster recovery
processes, so as to build community resilience to the impact of climate change.
Similarly, the national machinery in Tonga collaborates with the Ministry for Environment
and Climate Change to include women’s organizations in the development and integration of
environmental plans, programmes and activities. In the Philippines, the national machinery
actively participates in local and national forums on disaster risk reduction. It intends to
increase women’s skills and knowledge in responding to disasters and to develop models for
effective disaster management at the community level.
F. Partnership with non-governmental organizations and civil society
As mentioned in the previous chapter, women’s organizations are recognized as national
mechanisms in several countries of Asia and the Pacific. Non-profit organizations and
women’s assocations have assumed the following functions:
§ As women’s representatives on various advisory councils in order to promote cooperation between governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations and
women in the community;
§ As partners in the presentation of conferences and workshops for the
dissemination of information on gender equality and women’s empowerment,
§ As active partners in the organization of meetings with female members of
parliament to provide briefings on emerging issues for which politicians can
legislate in parliament,
§ As partners in the promotion, implementation and monitoring of programmes and
policies on gender mainstreaming, reproductive health and women’s rights,
legislative advocacy for gender equality, violence against women and children,
gender budgets, and local level gender and development plans,
§ As partners in gender analysis and research on the situation of women and gender
equality at various levels and among different sectors,
§ As service providers for women’s health, financial support, microfinance,
counseling and social protection packages,
§ As implementers and managers of family counseling centers, short stay homes,
rape crisis intervention centers, day care centers for children of working mothers,
and other similar services for women,
§ As providers of training on gender sensitivity, livelihood, business and
entrepreneurship, politics and leadership,
§ As jurors and arbitrators in labour and land arbitration, and as legal
representatives of cases of violence against women and children.
G. Implementation of other concerns in the Beijing Platform for Action
Aside from gains made in connection with the priority concerns that the Governments in the
region agreed to address in 2005, national machineries and mechanisms for gender equality
have also instituted strategies to sustain and improve the implementation of strategies along
the 12 areas of concern of the Beijing Platform for Action. These include education,
increased representation in government administration, participation in political structures,
and representation in other decision-making bodies.
1. Education and training for gender equality
The proportion of girls enrolled in primary education has increased dramatically, especially
in countries which subscribe to traditional mores that discriminate against the education of
38
women. Informal courses for women have also been promoted, including literacy and
practical skills courses.
The new thrust for women’s education is to promote tertiary education, including postgraduate work. This has been achieved in some ESCAP member States. For instance,
Singapore reports that female students are now well-represented in traditionally maledominated subjects. More Thai women than men pursue post-graduate education, including
masters’ and doctoral degrees. In the Cook Islands, an increasing number of women have
enrolled in, and successfully completed, Masters of Business Administration degrees. In
Brunei Darussalam and Maldives, the ratios in tertiary education are 1.88 and 2.37,
respectively, indicating higher proportions of women in tertiary education (ESCAP, 2009c).
Equally significant are measures to address sex stereotypes in textbooks and other
educational materials, and to introduce concepts of women’s rights, gender equality and
gender issues in education curricula. In the Philippines, as part of the revised basic education
curriculum, gender and development, violence against women, adolescent reproductive
health issues and life skills have been integrated in three subject areas at the elementary level:
science, character education and home economics. These concepts have also been
incorporated into all subjects at the secondary level. Fiji has also moved to eliminate certain
biases in the education sector, by creating gender sensitive educational materials, by
incorporating gender awareness training for trainee teachers, by including women in school
committees, and by developing the education potential of women, especially school dropouts.
Gender mainstreaming of education policies is a common strategy in Asia and the Pacific. As
an example of this strategy, the Office of Women’s Affairs and Family Development and the
Ministry of Education in Thailand have worked closely with non-governmental
organizations, the private sector and civil society to promote gender mainstreaming in the
master plan of the Ministry of Education. They have also applied the following strategies:
§ Collect and use sex-disaggregate data in all aspects of education, including in
institutions that provide educational and vocational trainings, so that the problems
of gender inequality are reflected,
§ Promote the work of Chief Gender Equality Officers in all universities and
colleges,
§ Amend education curricula and provide appropriate information in order to
transform the attitudes of parents, students and teachers with regard to gender
role,
§ Support education and training institutions and organizations that provide
opportunities for women with unwanted pregnancies to complete their education,
§ Promote and support studies and research in human dignity, values and gender
equality.
2. Representation in politics and public administration
New strategies have been introduced to promote women’s participation in decision-making,
particularly in politics and administration. In Thailand, for instance, the section on Women’s
Development in the country’s Tenth National Economic and Social Development Plan (20072011), delineates plans to increase the numbers of women in politics and administration at all
levels. Related to this objective, Thailand is currently implementing the Memorandum of
Understanding on the Campaign and Promotion of Women’s Participation in Local Politics
and the Protection of Women’s Rights. The organizations, which are party to the
Memorandum of Understanding, commit to promote and support the development of
women’s academic and practical potentials, in order to prepare them for participation in local
politics.
39
Viet Nam has also introduced measures to promote and train civil servants, in its desire to
narrow the gap in leadership participation between men and women. Some ministries,
agencies and provinces have issued regulations that provide subsidies to women participating
in training courses for civil servants.
In the Cook Islands, a National Workshop on Temporary Special Measures to Promote
Gender Balance in Parliament was held in early 2009. The workshop identified various
measures to be acted upon, in preparation for the 2010 National General Elections.
Pakistan is a good example, illustrating how to increase the effectiveness of women elected to
Parliament. The Ministry of Women and Development trained 27,000 local women
councillors under the Women’s Political Participation Project from 2002 to 2004.
Subsequently a follow-up project was implemented, the Women Political School. The trained
women councillors are now serving their constituents more effectively, in terms of, increased
attendance in sessions, more active participation in deliberations, influencing policies and
budgets, accessing funds and getting schemes approved. A total of 23,148 women councillors
have been trained under the Women Political School, which has enhanced their performance
as advocates for the rights of their constituents.
V. Instruments for achieving gender equality
A. Millennium Development Goals
Many of the countries in the Asia and the Pacific region are committed to the Millennium
Development Goals (MDG). In developing nations, these commitments are explicitly
acknowledged, in both the national development plans as well as in the plans of action or
policy documents for women and/or gender. In developed nations such as Australia and
Japan, strategies related to Millennium Development Goal 3 on gender equality informs
policies and programmes related to women and poverty, gender equality, women’s education,
health, environment, and global partnerships. Furthermore, Australia recognizes Millennium
Development Goal 3 as being critical to the achievement of all the other Millennium
Development Goals. Gender equality, therefore, has been elevated as a guiding principle of
the Australian International Development Assistance Programme.
B. Gender information and sex-disaggregated data
Several women/gender mechanisms in Asia and the Pacific have been active exponents for
the development of research and statistics on women and gender issues. Collaborative
activities have been undertaken with academic institutions, private groups, United Nations
organizations and national statistical offices. Noteworthy in this regard are the following
strategies:
§ The Australian Government regularly commissions research about issues that
affect women. In the past years, Australia has released a range of publications that
included sex-disaggregated data on issues that are significant to women. The
Office for Women funds the Centre for Gender-Related Violence Studies at the
University of New South Wales to create and maintain the Australian Domestic
and Family Violence Clearinghouse, a database that provides information on
relevant international domestic violence policies, practices and research.
§ The Social Report is an annual publication of the Ministry of Women’s Affairs of
New Zealand. It provides measures of well-being and quality of life that
complement existing economic and environmental indicators. It also compares
New Zealand with other countries on measures of well-being, contributes to
40
§
§
§
§
§
public debates on women and gender issues and helps identify key issues and
areas where the Government needs to take action.
Japan conducted a Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities in 2006, which
contributes to an understanding of the time spent on activities such as housework,
childcare, elderly nursing care and other unpaid work of women. It published the
results of a Public Opinion Poll on a Gender Equal Society in 2007, to be used as
a reference in policy development.
The Philippine Commission on Women co-chairs the Inter-Agency Committee on
Gender Statistics with the National Statistical Coordination Board. The
Committee has developed a minimum set of indicators on women’s empowerment
and gender equality for which executive line departments are tasked to collect
data. Regular publications and updated statistics on the status of women are
disseminated on the websites and in print.
Thailand’s Report on Gender Disaggregated Data was launched on 6 March 2008.
It provides statistical resources on gender for Government, the private sector and
the general public. The report is based on information derived from Thailand’s
Gender Disaggregated Database and Information System Project, which studied,
analyzed and collected gender disaggregated data according to the specified
indicators in the Beijing Platform for Action, Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Millennium Development Goals,
and other development indicators relevant to Thailand.
The Government of Indonesia has directed funds to almost 200 districts, so that
they can compile demographic and socioeconomic profiles of women living in
their areas. The information they generate is expected to contribute to the
development of a district level Women’s Development Index, which will allow
the local government to identify women’s needs more accurately and to plan
development programmes that respond to them.
Afghanistan has succeeded in establishing sex-disaggregated baseline data in its
National Action Plan for Women of Afghanistan on six areas of concern, which
are: security; legal protection and human rights; leadership and political
participation; economy, work and poverty; and health and education. The Central
Statistical Organization is also promoting the integration of gender into national
statistical activities, and capacity development, for the collection of gender
sensitive statistical data and analysis is ongoing.
C. Gender sensitization and capacity-building
The national mechanisms conduct a range of capacity-building activities, such as forums,
seminars and orientations that deal with specific gender issues, such as violence against
women and women’s political participation, as well as with gender mainstreaming processes
and approaches. Various sectors and stakeholders, such as politicians, policy-makers,
ministry personnel, government planners, teachers, law enforcers, health workers, guidance
counselors and women activists benefit from capacity-building activities,
Various tools, for instance, gender analysis and gender impact assessments, monitoring and
evaluation checklists, livelihood and practical skills manuals and strategies for promoting
reproductive health have been developed and disseminated to enhance training.
Some examples of initiatives taken to build capacities for gender equality include the
following:
§ The Royal Government of Bhutan, in cooperation with development partners and
relevant non-governmental organizations, has developed training packages for
teachers, law enforcers and health workers that include perspectives on women’s
rights. In collaboration with the United Nations Children’s Fund, the Government
41
§
§
§
§
§
also developed flyers, books and resource materials on both the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention
on the Rights of the Child for use in schools and for public distribution.
The Government of Singapore supports and facilitates the strengthening of
institutional capabilities of various agencies to enhance the status of women. It
provides training on gender awareness, gender analysis and planning. Members of
the Inter-Ministerial Committee are invited to conferences and seminars on gender
mainstreaming and to attend the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women, both locally and overseas, to enable them to share
their experiences in the promotion of gender equality and to learn from the best
practices.
The Philippines, in partnership the Women’s Studies Association, established nine
gender resource centers hosted by academic institutions in eight regions in the
Philippines, in order to respond to the increasing demands for gender training and
mentoring at the subnational levels.
Pakistan has launched a Gender Based Governance System Project, which is a
capacity-building project providing gender sensitivity to the political leadership at
all levels, and particularly to enable women to raise their issues and concerns in
the political arena.
Fiji has produced the Gender Assessment Pathway, a tool which aims to facilitate
in-depth audits of ministries and departments, and has written gender audit reports
for the Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Health. The project was the result
of a partnership between the Ministry for Women, the Department of Fisheries,
the University of the South Pacific, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and
the women of Driti village in Bua.
Gender sensitization through the media and the internet has also been employed
by different States in the region. These initiatives include having dedicated radio
or television programmes for women and gender issues and providing internet
resources on national plans for women and gender equality through the websites
of various national mechanisms.
D. Legislation promoting gender equality
Laws that have been formulated in conjunction with national policies or plans for women and
gender equality are of two types:
§ Laws, which provide protection against discrimination, redress violations, and/or
promote new or better opportunities for women.
§ Laws, which aim to transform gender roles and social norms towards greater
equity and equality between women and men.
Legislations of the first type generally address practical gender needs, while laws in the
second category respond to strategic needs to transform gender relationships.
Women’s welfare and rights have been addressed by legal reforms in employment, social
protection, child support, health services and education. For example, Myanmar’s laws
provide equal rights to men and women in all economic activities. Woman workers enjoy
equal rights with male workers in wages, salaries, occupational safety, health, working hours,
working conditions, social protection, social security and insurance. In Hong Kong, China,
the Employment Ordinance prescribes various equal rights, such as rest days, holidays with
pay and other benefits.
In China, the Constitution, the Compulsory Education Law, the Law on Protection of
Women’s Rights and Interests, and other relevant laws provide that women enjoy the same
right to education as men. In Brunei Darussalam, the Old Age and Disability Pensions Act
42
1954, provides old age pensions to all women once they reach the age of 60, regardless of
financial status.
Laws that penalize trafficking in persons, violence against women and their children, or
sexual exploitation have also been promulgated in many nations of the Region. Pakistani
women enjoy protection of their rights through the Criminal Law Act 2004, Code of Criminal
(Amendment) Ordinance 2006, and Protection of Women and Criminal Laws (Amendment)
Act 2006. The Philippines has a law that defines violence against women and children and
penalizes offenders under the Anti-Violence against Women and Children Act. Japan revised
the Act on the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims in 2007. In
Nepal, new provisions were recently introduced in the Criminal Code to combat abduction
and forced prostitution of women and young girls. Protection of women in Brunei
Darussalam is enforced through the Trafficking and Smuggling of Persons Order (2004) and
the Offenders (Probation and Community Service) Order enforced in 2006.
Legal initiatives that have the potential to transform gender relations address patriarchal
norms and other traditional beliefs regarding gender. In the States of the region, these have
dealt with marriage and marital relations, parental authority, ownership of property and
citizenship. For example, it is now an offence in Singapore for a husband to engage in nonconsensual sexual intercourse, which can lead to the withdrawal of marital immunity under
certain prescribed circumstances. Similarly, the Philippines has instituted a provision in its
Anti-Rape Law which penalizes husbands who subject their wives to marital rape.
The right of wives to own or inherit property has been guaranteed by laws in China,
Malaysia, Mongolia and Nepal. Equal rights to bank loans and other forms of credit are now
enforced in Malaysia, Nepal and the Philippines.
National policies, gender sensitization and constant advocacy on all fronts, especially from
gender equality mechanisms and women’s organizations, have led to the redefinition of
parental roles and prerogatives. Mongolia’s Family Law (1992) provides for equal parental
authority and spousal rights. A similar law has been issued in China. Chinese women have
also acquired the same right as men to pass on their nationality to their children. Similarly,
the Singapore Parliament amended the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore in 2004, to
allow children born overseas to acquire Singapore citizenship by descent from their
Singaporean mothers. In Japan, the Supreme Court ruled in 2008 that denying nationality to
children born out of wedlock to foreign mothers and Japanese fathers is unconstitutional.
E. Gender budgets
The institution of a gender budget is one of the main interventions undertaken to ensure that
plans and programmes for women’s development are financially supported. As described in
the previous chapter, this instrument for gender equality is often promoted by law or as part
of national policy. In the wake of the global financial and economic crisis, a genderresponsive budget becomes a key strategy to ensure that fiscal stimulus packages are
engendered (ESCAP, 2009b). Some examples follow of how gender budgets have sought to
address the economic difficulties faced by women.
The 2009-2010 Women’s Budget Statement of Australia took the theme Supporting Women
in a Time of Economic Challenge. It reflects a more rigorous and informative women’s
budget process than in previous years. This step ensures gender mainstreaming across
Government and makes the evaluation of gender awareness and influence regarding
programmes and policies more accurate. Separate allocations for the environment, to close
the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, migration and international aid
are also linked to empowering women and gender equality.
43
In Bangladesh the Vulnerable Group Development Programme is being implemented. It is a
multi-donor based nationwide programme, which aims to assist 750,000 “hard-core poor
rural women” in Bangladesh. The Asia Development Bank, in turn, provides resources to
facilitate gender mainstreaming, in support of: the implementation of the National Action
Plan for the Advancement of Women; strategies to improve women’s access to land,
resources and services; the promotion of women’s employment and income generation; the
participation of tribal women in development; and the provision of appropriate infrastructure
and services for women (ADB, 2006).
Conditional cash transfers are anti-poverty strategies that have become associated with a
gender budget. In Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia and the Philippines they are made
contingent on girls’ education. In Pakistan, they are part of the food programme (Fiszbein
and Schady, 2009).
Gender budgets have also been widely used in campaigns to combat violence against women
and the trafficking of women and children. India has instituted special interventions for
working women and women in distress. The Conditional Cash Transfer Programme, is one of
several strategies developed to combat the trafficking of young girls. Under this scheme, cash
transfers are made contingent on certain conditions being met: at the birth and registration of
a girl (this also acts as a deterrent to female feticide); upon primary school enrollment; when
updating immunization cards and upon completion of primary and secondary education. A
final cash transfer is made if the girl remains unmarried at the age of 18 years (India, 2006).
In Australia, efforts to improve women’s safety and to build a culture of zero tolerance
towards violence against women and children are key strategies in the Women’s Budget
Statement. Funds have been allotted for several activities that promote this objective,
including the following:
§ research – support for an Aus$2 million national survey, which will benchmark
attitudes towards violence against women, and obtain a range of specialist
evaluations regarding victim support needs, perpetrator rehabilitation/education
and treatment programmes,
§ housing – an additional $1.2 billion will be invested to help homeless Australians
over the next four years, expanding models of integrated support, enabling women
and children escaping violence to remain at home safely through the National
Partnership on Homelessness,
§ helpline- funding crisis support and referral for victims and their families exposed
to violence, through a national 24-hour Violence against Women Helpline.
At the Asia-Pacific High-level Intergovernmental Meeting to Review Regional
Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action and Its Regional and Global Outcomes,
other important impacts of gender budgets were identified (ESCAP, 2009b). These include:
§ Gender budgets have supported the production and dissemination of sexdisaggregated data and other information on inequalities,
§ Gender-responsive budget initiatives have facilitated work at subnational levels,
supporting linkages between the national and local levels in budgeting and
governance,
§ Gender-responsive budgeting has emerged as part of locally developed and
community based, community driven or decentralized governance programmes,
and enables local people to voice their needs, take part in local budget processes,
as well as in budget monitoring and advocacy,
44
§
Gender-responsive budget initiatives have focused on planning processes, leading
to legislation related to rights based programmes, for working women, the
vulnerable and the elderly.
VI. Collaborative mechanisms for gender equality
Gender mainstreaming is the overriding strategy when implementing plans of action for
women, and/or for gender equality. In this regard, an integrative and collaborative
mechanism to act on gender issues has been put into place in many countries. National
mechanisms in the region, viewed in terms of their linkages with other organizations, may be
categorized as follows:
§ Single machineries linked vertically to lower levels of governance
§ Several mechanisms with both horizontal and vertical linkages
A. Single mechanisms linked vertically
National mechanisms in several countries link their work on gender equality directly to
subnational levels. In these States, the authority of a single office or ministry is able to reach
out to the nation as a whole, or is strategically situated in the highest level of governance.
Many of these States/Territories are small (the Cook Islands, Maldives, Marshall Islands,
Federal States of Micronesia, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu, as well as Hong Kong, China,
and Macao, China) and a single mechanism may be able to deal adequately with women’s
and gender issues. They are principally tasked to implement their countries’ respective plans
for gender equality.
Japan has a single national mechanism, the Council for Gender Equality, which is placed
within a powerful office of the Government. It is led by the Prime Minister, and chaired by
the Chief Cabinet Secretary and the Minister of State for Social Affairs and Gender Equality.
The Gender Equality Bureau acts as the Secretariat of the Council. It promotes the Second
Basic Plan for Gender Equality (2005-2010) and requires prefectural Governments to
formulate ordinances and by-laws consistent with the plan, including the establishment of
gender equality centers and other general facilities for women.
The Ministry of Women’s Affairs and Social Security in the Maldives and the Ministry for
Women’s Affairs in Sri Lanka evolved from different incarnations in earlier periods, when
the national machineries in these two nations were attached to other ministries. Having a
single ministry devoted to women’s affairs is a significant development towards
strengthening the work for women’s empowerment.
The Ministry of Women’s Affairs in New Zealand, on the other hand, functions primarily as
a policy agency and as lead advisor to the Government. It does not provide services directly
to the public, is not an advocacy organization and does not have an international development
role. However, the Ministry has organized a Women in Enterprise Steering Group and a
Work-Life Balance Steering Group to identify success factors for small and medium-size
enterprises and to develop policies and practices that enhance the ability of families and
individuals to make choices about paid work, respectively.
B. Mechanisms with horizontal and vertical linkages
In a majority of countries within the region, there are several mechanisms that work together
as ministries or offices with equivalent power and authority, but as separate organizations.
45
There are also mechanisms, which operate laterally and vertically, down to the lowest levels
of governance. Examples of these formations include the following linked organizations:
1. National machineries laterally linked to other offices with specific functions
The Ministry of Women, Community and Social Development of Samoa and the Women’s
Desk in Singapore work alongside the committees tasked to oversee the implementation of
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which are
multi-sectoral bodies.
Mongolia’s National Committee on Gender Equality is headed by the Prime Minister, and is
a consultative body at the national level. It cooperates with the Gender Observation Unit, an
independent organization conducting surveys on gender balance in the educational sector and
giving recommendations on educational policies, with the National Center against Violence
and with the police, to protect women against all forms of violence.
2. Equivalent machineries
In the Islamic Repubic of Iran, there are two inter-related national machineries, the Center for
Women’s Participation and the Center for Women and the Families. All executive
organizations are represented in the Center for Women’s Participation. Also represented are
the Ministries that oversee the Islamic Culture and the Islamic Revolution. This allows the
Center to coordinate their inter-organizational activities. The Center for Women’s
Participation was later renamed the Center for Women and Family Affairs, with the mandate
to promote the role of women as wives and mothers. It is affiliated with the Presidential
Office.
There are two Cambodian national machineries, the Ministry of Women’s Affairs and the
Cambodian National Council for Women. Each have their respective responsibilities and
areas of expertise.
3. Offices linked to legislative units and other mechanisms
Bhutan’s National Commission for Women and Children works with the Legislative
Committee on Women and Children, the Women and Child Protection Unit of the Royal
Bhutan Police, and with the South Asian Convention for Regional Cooperation to combat
trafficking in women and children, and on women’s issues with gender focal points in line
ministries.
A similar structure exists in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, where the National
Coordination Committee for the Implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women consists of officials of the Presidium of the
Supreme People’s Assembly, and various ministries such as Labour, Education, Public
Health, and Foreign Affairs, as well as the the Central Court and the Central Public
Prosecutors Office.
In the Philippines, the newly enacted Philippine Commission on Women will function as the
primary policy making and coordinating body for women and gender equality concerns. It
collaborates with legislative committees in both Houses of Congress to review and formulate
relevant bills, with the Committee on Gender-Responsiveness in the Judiciary, the Philippine
National Police Women and Children’s Concerns Center, and with the independent body of
the Commission on Human Rights. It also collaborates with line ministries through the
gender focal points, and with multi-stakeholder groups such as the Inter-Agency Councils
against Trafficking, the Inter-Agency Councils on Violence against Women and their
Children and the Inter-Agency Committee on Gender Statistics. Furthermore, the Philippine
46
Commission on Women is represented in the Official Development Assistance - Gender and
Development Network composed of gender officers from multi-lateral and bilateral
development assistance agencies. It also collaborates with Regional Gender and Development
Councils, Provincial Councils of Women and with Gender Resource Centers across the
country.
4. Ministries with laterally and vertical linkages
The State Ministry for Women Empowerment in Indonesia is tasked to coordinate, monitor
and evaluate progress achieved for women’s rights. It works with women empowerment
boards, which are responsible for mainstreaming and/or promoting women’s development
subnationally in different provinces and districts. The State Ministry also collaborates with
non-governmental organizations, such as the Indonesian Women Congress, a federation of 78
women’s organizations, the PKK (Family Welfare Movement), and with women’s/gender
studies centers. In 1998 the National Commission on Violence against Women was
established to advocate, revise and/or propose new public policies and laws to address and
prevent all forms of violence against women. It is also involved in strengthening national,
regional and international institutional capacities against violence against women.
In Bangladesh, the Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs consists of three principal
implementing agencies: the Department of Women’s Affairs; the National Women’s
Association; and the Bangladesh Children’s Academy. The principal role of the Department
of Women’s Affairs is to provide technical and administrative support and advice to the
Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs. Both the Department of Women’s Affairs and the
National Women’s Association have district and subdistrict offices. Other implementing
agencies linked to the Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs are the National Council
for Women’s Development, the Women’s Development Implementation and Evaluation
Committee and District WID Coordination Committees.
Afghanistan maintains relationships with line ministries or departments through a system of
gender focal points. Afghanistan’s Ministry of Women’s Affairs deputizes members from its
Advisory Group on Gender to the national programme’s consultative groups, in order to
coordinate planning and strategies for the elimination of violence against women. It also
directs the work of the Departments of Women’s Affairs based in the provinces. At the same
time, the Ministry of Women’s Affairs maintains collaborative linkage with the Women's
Rights Department under the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission, the Interministerial Working Group on Gender and Statistics and the NGO Coordination Council.
In Viet Nam, the National Committee for the Advancement of Women was in charge of
monitoring and reporting progress on the promotion of women’s rights until 2008. At that
time the responsibility was transferred to the Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs,
which was tasked to implement the landmark Law on Gender Equality. In Government, the
Gender Equality Department assists the Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs in
managing gender equality. At the local level, it is the Department of Labour that assists the
Peoples’ Committees in this work. The Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs also
maintains horizontal relations with other State ministries to mainstream gender issues.
Meanwhile, the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism has been designated as the state
mechanism to oversee the implementation of the Law on Domestic Violence. The State
machinery also collaborates with the Viet Nam Women’s Union, a mass organization with 12
million members which has organic links with the villages and trade unions, in the
development and implementation of policies and plans. At subnational levels, committees for
the advancement of women have been established in all ministries and cities or provinces,
through the Viet Nam Women’s Union.
47
Australia’s complex network of mechanisms for gender equality is led by the Minister for the
Status of Women, who works with other Government ministers to ensure that women’s issues
and gender equality are taken into consideration during the development and implementation
of policies and programmes. The Office for Women supports the Minister for the Status of
Women in this role as an advisory body. There are Offices for Women in different states
supervised by different ministries. The Office for Women also set up the Women’s
Interdepartmental Committee to coordinate policy initiatives across the Government. The
Australian Government has established other mechanisms to deal with specific gender issues,
such as the National Council to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children, a Sex
Discrimination Commissioner under the Australian Human Rights Commission, and the
Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency. The Social Inclusion Board
examines how policies and programmes across ministries can combine to deal with issues of
economic and social disadvantage, including gender based discrimination. Parallel to the
Office for Women is the National Women’s Alliances, made up of more than 70 women’s
organizations and considered a national mechanism for gender equality.
C. Channels of collaboration and information exchange
The nature of collaborations and exchanges between different groups hinges on their
structural relations, formal and/or informal linkages and functions. Possible forms of
collaborations are:
§ Joint meetings and discussions to prepare national reports on the progress of the
implementation of international agreements, and for the review and preparation of
reports on national plans for women and/or gender equality,
§ Collaborations between governmental and non-governmental agencies, at regular
intervals or when the need arises, to implement programmes and activities where
community engagement is required,
§ Regular meetings of cross-sectoral representatives in inter-agency committees with
membership from government, law enforcement, judiciary, civil society, media and
business, to monitor and review existing programmes of action,
§ Formal representation of civil society, academia, research institutions and the media
on the boards of national machineries, as well as in gender focal point networks, to
develop policy, design programmes and to monitor existing initiatives and services,
§ Participation in gender and women related activities across the country (as on
Women’s Day) by national machineries, gender focal points from different line
ministries, other gender mechanisms, offices or executive line departments, women’s
organizations, media, the private sector and other stakeholders,
§ Participation in inter-agency and cross-sectoral dialogues, workshops and/or
conferences to craft gender equality policies, programmes and projects, and for the
review of ongoing or completed initiatives,
§ Collaboration and cooperation with international organizations and national
machineries in other countries through membership in regional formations, and by
attending and/or hosting regional and international meetings,
§ High-level meetings between Cabinet Heads, ministers of Parliament and legislators
to formalize policy, legislations and other commitments consistent with national plans
and/or international obligations,
§ Regional high-level meetings between Heads of State or Government, or between
ministers, on programmes for regional cooperation for women’s empowerment and
gender equality.
48
VII. Key areas of success, gains and achievements
The previous chapter highlights the areas of concern on which national machineries and
mechanisms for women’s empowerment and gender equality have focused their efforts, as
well as the instruments and processes they have used in this endeavour. In this chapter, key
areas of success in the national effort to promote women’s empowerment and gender equality
will be described. The main consideration in the selection is an analysis of how the national
mechanisms have been able to demonstrate positive outcomes and/or progress on the
promotion of women’s empowerment and gender equality through their structural forms,
mandates, tools and processes.
Within this context, the main areas of success of the national mechanism and machineries for
gender equality in Asia and the Pacific can be categorized as follows: increased capacity of
mechanisms to mainstream gender; use of more inclusive and holistic approaches in dealing
with women and gender issues; directed efforts to end discrimination against women; and the
utilization of public awareness strategies as an advocacy tool for gender equality. These
achievements are interrelated and may be inseparable at some stages of the gender
mainstreaming process.
A. Increased capacity of mechanisms to mainstream gender
Plans and policies to advance women’s empowerment and/or attain gender equality have
been formulated and serve as the framework against which to mobilize other social sectors.
The plans may be enforced as ministerial decrees or as legislation. In a number of countries,
the plan for gender equality is part of the overall national development plan, which should
hasten the process of incorporating these goals in the different sectoral concerns of
government.
1. Mainstreaming gender in national development plans
In Afghanistan, the Ministry of Women’s Affairs mainstreamed gender into the Millennium
Development Goals of Afghanistan, the Constitution, the Afghanistan National Development
Strategy and the Afghanistan Compact. The Ministry of Women’s Affairs did a gender
review of 34 long term plans of ministries and other government agencies, and submitted its
comments for the integration of gender into such strategies. It was named chair of three
mechanisms within the Afghanistan National Development Strategy, issued gender
mainstreaming guidelines to the drafters of the Afghanistan National Development Strategy
Report, wrote the chapter on gender equality and did a final gender review of all the chapters
on other topics, with gender equality serving as a cross-cutting strategy.
Indonesia’s Development Work Plan adopted gender mainstreaming as one of the guiding
principles in all national development programmes and activities. In addition, the
Government ensured that women’s concerns are incorporated in the national development
planning process by pointing out that women’s groups are currently represented in the
processes of development planning.
In Australia, a whole-of-government approach to gender mainstreaming is in place. It
involves the establishment of the Women’s Interdepartmental Committee to take forward a
broad whole-of-government programme of work on issues ranging from violence to
improving economic outcomes for women. The Interdepartmental Committee ensures that all
policies, services and initiatives are gender sensitive, and that they are closely evaluated
regarding their impact on women and men.
49
The Women’s Plan of Action (2009-2018) of Fiji covers policy objectives in the National
Development Plan – Strategic Framework for Change and Pacific Platform for Action 20052015. The Plan identifies national development issues, regarding women, and appropriate
strategies to which the Government of Fiji can commit. Therese strategies include; providing
a gender analysis of Government policies and programmes and identifying critical areas for
action.
2. Mainstreaming gender through increasing the authority of national women’s
machineries
A number of mechanisms have been elevated from departments or committess to actual
ministries. Others have enhanced their mandates to encompass a broader set of goals and
partnerships. These advances enable the mechanisms to engage in formal collaborations with
many other ministries or agencies, for the development, implementation and monitoring of
national plans on women’s affairs and/or gender equality.
When the office is lodged at the highest echelons of power in the State, as in the Office of the
Prime Minister, the President or the Cabinet Office, the national machinery carries the
authority and mandate to direct other departments and agencies to incorporate gender
concerns in their work. The challenge is to ensure that sponsorship of gender equality by
high-level officials goes beyond lip service, and that they personally subscribe to the goals
laid out in national plans. In this respect, the efforts of national mechanisms to sensitize and
capacitate different sectors for gender equality advocacy should include government
executives, ministers and Heads of Government and State.
Two national machineries in the region were established before the end of 2005; the Ministry
of Child Development and Women's Empowerment Sri Lanka and the National Committee
on Gender Equality under the Prime Minister in the Government of Mongolia.
While India upgraded the Department of Women and Child Development to a Ministry in
2006, Bhutan upgraded its National Commission for Women and Children to an autonomous
body. The latter serves as the national mechanism for coordinating and monitoring activities
related to women, and for reporting to treaty bodies. It has a cross-sectoral representation of
eleven members from Government, law enforcement agencies, the judiciary, civil society,
media and the private sector.
In Timor-Leste, the Secretary of State for the Promotion of Equality replaced the Office on
the Promotion of Equality in 2008. It is lodged under the Cabinet of the Prime Minister and is
tasked to coordinate national reporting on the implementation of the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, as well as promote gender
equality in the country.
3. Resource materials to facilitate gender mainstreaming
To facilitate the process of mainstreaming gender in government and society, national
mechanisms have been actively producing resource materials to accompany training and
orientation programmes, and to promote activities and other services related to combating
discrimination and violence against women. Many of these resource materials can be
categorized as follows:
§ Manuals, pamphlets and multi-media packages addressing violence against
women, such as Fiji’s Community Facilitation Package on Violence against
Women,
§
Resource materials to ensure the proper integration of gender in development
work, such as the gender mainstreaming kits of Viet Nam and the Philippines.
50
These kits consist of tools and materials to guide agencies in honing their
knowledge and skills with regards to gender and development. Fiji has developed
a Gender Assessment Pathway, which is a tool to conduct gender audits of
ministries, while Hong Kong, China developed a Gender Mainstreaming
Checklist, which it applies to 29 policy/programme areas,
§
Materials directed at specific sectors, such as Bhutan’s flyers and books on the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women for
law enforcers and health workers. For mainstreaming gender in education, Viet
Nam’s National Committee for the Advancement of Women, in partnership with
four leadership training institutes (Ho Chi Minh Political Academy, National
Academy for Politics and Administration, Youth Academy, and Women’s Cadre
School), developed gender sensitive training materials. These materials have been
used in the teaching programmes of the four institutions since 2005.
4. Mainstreaming gender through gender budgets
Good practices for mainstreaming a gender budget have also been put into place. Australia,
Indonesia and the Philippines are leading the way in this respect. Gender responsive budget
initiatives, especially when undertaken as part of local development or community based
programmes, have served as vehicles for local level fiscal stimulus packages, as was reported
by Cambodia, Indonesia, Nepal and Pakistan. The processes for developing a gender budget
can also help to raise the voices of women and build accountability in local budget processes,
culminating in the designation of gender-aware districts similar to those currently in
Indonesia, as well as citizen engagement in budget monitoring and advocacy as used in India
(ESCAP 2009b).
In India, gender budgeting has been used as a rights based programming approach. It led to
the creation of legislation that is supportive of the rights based design features of the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Schemes, which was backed by successful advocacy and
reinforced by a Right-to-Information Act. Gender responsive budget initiatives have also
resulted in the production and analysis of data disaggregated by sex and other dimensions of
inequality, such as ethnicity, religion, caste, location, age, poverty and employment status
(ESCAP 2009b).
B. Inclusive and holistic approaches to the promotion of gender equality
Strategies for promoting gender equality have become more inclusive and holistic. The
structure of the national mechanisms is indicative of this, when they radiate downward to
include activities at the lowest levels, or horizontally in relation to government programmes
across a broad array of national concerns. As a result, a more diverse set of players have a
voice in this process.
The formation of gender focal points and inter-agency committees at varying levels of
governance has been an important itool in the realization of the goals of policies and plans for
women and/or gender equality. This is because they facilitate the integration of a country’s
gender policies into diverse spheres of governance. At the same time, the mobilization of
more actors for the promotion of gender equality increases the likelihood of success and also
accountability. The challenge here is to ensure that gender focal points, committees,
parliamentarians, civil society, media, scholars and other stakeholders fully understand the
issues addressed, agree on strategies for their solutions and collaborate in positive ways for
the implementation of laws and policies.
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An example of how a gender focal point can integrate gender concerns in its programmes or
projects is provided by the Department of Corrections of the Ministry of Justice of Thailand
(as reported to the Office of Women’s Affairs and Family Development in 2008). In this
case, the Department was concerned with enhancing the situation of female prisoners, whose
unique gender needs are often overlooked by prison administration (Box III).
Box III. Gender mainstreaming in correctional facilities
Chief Gender Equality Promotion Officers at the ministerial level, and
gender focal points at the departmental level, have been created in all line
ministries of Thailand. They are responsible for developing the master
plan on the promotion of gender equality, and for acting as monitoring
mechanisms to measure progress in gender mainstreaming, within each
respective line ministry or department. Meanwhile, the Office of Women’s
Affairs and Family Development, Ministry of Social Development and
Human Security, function as the focal points to promote coordination in
the implementation of the plan. Success in gender mainstreaming through
the Chief Gender Equality Promotion Officers and other focal points has
been achieved by means of promoting - knowledge on gender analysis,
gender integration, collection of sex-disaggregated data, women’s
participation, and gender budgeting.
The ‘Kamlungjai’ or ‘Inspire’ project was initiated in 2008 and proposed
to support women inmates during imprisonment and after their release. Its
target groups include pregnant female inmates, children of inmates,
younger inmates and inmates who are children. With cooperation from the
Department of Corrections and the Red Cross, Kamlunghai provides
training in health care and other lifelong skills to improve the quality of
life of the inmate demographic listed above. The project is now being
implemented in several prisons all over Thailand. To promote gender
mainstreaming in the prison system, the project also looks forward to
developing a comprehensive strategy and guidelines for the treatment of
women inmates, which may further serve as a set of recommendations for
an amendment of the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the
Treatment of Women Prisoners.
The Department of Corrections has also taken gender roles into
consideration in the assignment of officials to certain jobs, such as the
examination and interrogation of inmates. It has established a childcare
center called “Bunyathorn Home” for the infant children of female
inmates.
[From Thailand’s response to the Questionnaire for Governments on the
Implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action Plus 15]
More programmes are now implemented in partnership with politicians, bureaucrats,
members of non-governmental organizations, activists, scholars, media personalities and
business executives, as well as with law enforcement officals and human rights lawyers.
Many of the national machineries for gender equality collaborate with non-governmental
organizations and other constituencies that represent a broad set of women: the rural poor,
women workers, entrepreneurs, migrants, students, and victims of gender-based
discrimination and violence, to name a few. In doing so, the people within the mechanisms
are able to obtain different perspectives on the nature of gender inequality, as this affects
different women differently. Partnerships with women’s groups allow disempowered women
to voice their concerns, and to convey those concerns to the halls of government. Among the
achievements gained through multi-stakeholder collaboration are the following:
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§
§
§
§
§
§
Indonesia’s State Ministry of Women Empowerment and non-governmental
organizations, such as the Indonesian Women’s Congress, the Center for Electoral
Reform, Indonesia Women’s Coalition, Indonesian Women’s Political Caucus,
and Indonesian Women’s Caucus in Parliament, collaborated on the passage of a
number of laws to promote women’s rights and gender equality.
The All-China Women’s Federation, Committee on Women of the All-China
Federation of Trade Unions, and the Association of Women Entrepreneurs of
China, have actively participated in national legislation and law enforcement
supervision, promoted the development and improvement of laws and regulations
on the protection of women’s rights and interests, assisted the Government with
major cases involving violations of women’s rights and interests, and carried out
campaigns to raise awareness and the capacity of women to protect their rights in
accordance with the law.
The Philippine Commission on Women collaborated with Muslim women’s
groups and several Muslim religious leaders in southern Philippines (Mindanao)
to develop materials and tools that are infused with a gender perspective.
In Singapore, the Women’s Integration Network Council under the People’s
Association runs programmes for women at the community level and provides
leadership opportunities at the grassroots level.
Mongolia’s Education Gender Observation Unit conducts surveys on gender
balance in the education sector and provides policy recommendations to
organizations that develop and implement educational policies. With the initiative
of the Gender Observation Unit, and upon the recommendation of the Social
Policy Standing Committee of the State Parliament, 16 hours of teaching on the
subject of gender relations have been included in the curriculum of teachers’
qualification training since 2004. Courses for school deans also include training
on gender analysis.
Many national mechanisms benefit from collaborative work with academic and
research institutions. Bhutan’s study on Gender Prejudices and Stereotypes and
Women’s Political Participation was undertaken by an academic organization. In
Afghanistan, Kabul University established a Gender Studies Institute, which will
provide ongoing gender equality training to various groups. In Mongolia, the
views of women researchers are used in the drafts of gender development
programmes and plans. In the Republic of Korea, the Korean Women’s
Development Institute generates gender-sensitive statistics for the national gender
equality machinery. In the Philippines, research and extension units of state
colleges and universities serve as regional gender resource centers. These are
technical support groups for gender mainstreaming, to advance the work of the
national gender equality mechanisms in the promotion of women’s empowerment
and gender equality.
Mainstreaming a gender perspective in plans on local governance, education, trade,
employment, health, energy, national security, indigenous and cultural concerns, disaster risk
reduction, and other social and economic matters make the plans more responsive to a diverse
set of concerns. For instance:
§ The Driti Fish Pond project in Fiji is a good example of gender mainstreaming in
micro-enterprise development through a collaborative approach. The project, in
which a women’s group in Driti is engaged in tilapia farming,was the result of a
partnership between the Ministry for Women, the Department of Fisheries, the
University of the South Pacific, Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the
women of Driti village in Bua.
53
§
§
§
Religious groups, such as the Solomon Islands Christian Association Federation
of Women, are among the most influential and active advocates of women’s
empowerment in the Solomon Islands. Thus, one successful approach to helping
women through micro-enterprise programmes has been through joint projects with
faith based organizations, which have direct links with women at the grass roots
level. The Women’s Development Division provides training on livelihood and
income generation to women leaders from faith based organizations, who then
disseminate these skills within their own individual networks in rural areas.
The South Pacific Business Development Micro Finance Scheme for unemployed
women is one successful programme which addresses women and poverty in
Samoa. The project is jointly undertaken by the Development Bank of Samoa and
the Ministry of Women, Community and Social Development. Three interrelated
good practices have been applied by the South Pacific Business Development
Micro Finance Scheme to promote the continuity and sustainability of the project.
First, it uses a strengths based approach, which builds on the existing strengths of
the village women's committees to deliver the microfinance programme to the
community based women’s organizations. Second, it uses a group guarantor
scheme to ensure repayment of loans, which hinges on the strong culture of
teamwork, support and networking in rural culture. Third, there is a skills building
component providing practical skills in income generating initiatives for
unemployed women, which is further supported and sustained by the village based
microfinance programmes.
Also noteworthy is Samoa’s approach to building community resilience to the
impacts of climate change. Samoan women have been consulted on the
development of national strategies and plans for disaster management and disaster
risk reduction. They have been targeted for education and awareness programmes,
in order to minimize the risk and impact of climate change. The Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resources is coordinating technical assistance from
various government sections in order to create and/or facilitate the availability of
social protection measures within communities, such as risk reduction strategies
and capacity building for post disaster recovery processes.
C. Efforts to end discrimination against women
A number of laws have been passed that ease the way for obtaining gender equality in,
among others, employment and education, health and social services, and political
participation and public administration. Traditional norms have been defied and negated to
address basic human rights, mostly as a response to various United Nations conventions, such
as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. At the same time, innovative approaches to
enhancing gender equality through legal reform, especially within the purview of marriage
and family law have emerged. Many of these legislative and policy reforms were discussed in
the previous chapter. Some of the significant achievements attained through these strategies
are as follows:
1. Legislative and executive measures
Legislative and executive measures have involved the enactment of laws concerning women
workers, the institution of policies that ease women’s multiple burdens, as well as capacitybuilding efforts to equip women with employable and/or entrepreneurial skills.
§ Japan has instituted a number of measures to encourage the participation of
women in economic life. For instance, Japan has a policy for rural women under
the Family Management Agreement (Family Business Agreement) Programme.
54
§
§
The Agreement establishes the management policy of a family-run agricultural
business, stipulates the role of each member of the family, the working conditions
and environment. The Family Management Agreement increased the number of
entrepreneurial activities engaged in by rural women from 7,735 cases in 2002 to
9,533 cases in 2007. The women in the cases noted are most often engaged in the
processing and sale of local agricultural products.
In 2008, the Equal Employment Act of the Republic of Korea was amended to the
Act on Equal Employment and Support for Balancing Work and Family Life. The
new Act incorporates articles on paternity leave, parental leave, flexible working
hours, and other provisions that lay the legal groundwork to ensure men’s
participation in housework and childcare. The national machinery also created the
Task Force Team on Countering the Effects of Economic Crisis for Women,
which aims to provide support to women at risk due to the economic recession.
Credit programmes have been instituted across the region to enable women to set
up livelihood enterprises. For instance, in 2006, the Vietnamese Government
allocated an initial budget of 40 billion Dong to the Viet Nam Women’s Union as
a credit union specifically designed to assist women. The Myanmar Women’s
Affairs Federation provided temporary loans of 72.4 million Kyats to 8,608 needy
women in 2006 through a micro credit scheme.
2. Measures to address violence against women
The issue of violence against women is prevelant across class, race, economic and political
systems. Thus, almost all nations of the region have instituted legal and policy strategies, as
well as services, to combat violations of women’s rights.
§ Laws related to violence against women, which have been in place for some time
now, are those in India, including the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act,
Dowry Prohibition Act, Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act,
Immoral Traffic Prevention Act and Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act. These laws are administered by Ministry of Women and Child
Development.
§ Laws enacted in the past 5-10 years to deter and punish crimes related to violence
against women include, the 2002 Acid Control Act and the 2002 Acid Crime
Control Act in Bangladesh; the 2005 Prevention of Domestic Violence Act in Sri
Lanka; the 2003 Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act and 2005 Anti-Violence against
Women and Their Children Act in the Philippines; and the 2007 The
Protection of Domestic Violence Victims Act in Thailand.
§ Amendments to strengthen older legislations have also been made, such as the
2007 Revised Act on the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of
Victims in Japan; the 2004 Law on Fighting against Domestic Violence in
Mongolia; and the 2006 amendment to the Act on the Punishment of Sexual
Violence and Protection of Victims in the Republic of Korea.
§ The Ministry of Health of the Cook Islands adopted a National Policy on
Reproductive Health in 2008, which stipulates, among others things, that “gender
equality is advanced and women and girls are empowered to enable them to
exercise their reproductive rights and to be free of discrimination and violence,
through more effective policies and strengthened community interventions.”
In accordance with these laws, capacity-building for law enforcers, public awareness projects
and direct services for women victims have been instituted. Some of these initiatives have
been described in the previous chapter. The strategies undertaken by the national machineries
and mechanisms for gender equality in Bhutan to combat violence against women is
illustrative of the efforts made across the Asian and the Pacific region (see Box IV). To deal
55
with cases of violence against women, Bhutan enacted a set of strategies that involved
collaborative work among different mechanisms of the government and across national
borders.
Box IV. Collaborative strategies to address violence against women in Bhutan
Various sectors of Bhutanese society are represented in the National
Commission for Women and Children. Its members include Government
officials, law enforcement officers and members of the judiciary, as well as
representatives of civil society, business and the media. National consultations
on violence against women and children were held in 2005 and 2006 with the
police and judiciary, resulting in 16 recommendations for dealing with the
problem. Consequently, gender sensitivity programmes were conducted for all
Command Police Officers in 2007 and for all Superintendents of Police in
2008. Training sessions covering both trafficking and the Convention on the
Rights of the Child were also carried out for both police officers and staff of
the National Commission for Women and Children. Shortly after the
completion of the training, the first case of trafficking was filed in court in
2007, and the accused received a three year sentence. In addition, police
officers established, with their counterparts in neighboring countries, a
network to fight human trafficking. A Complaints and Response Mechanism
has also been set up to provide quick responses for the Royal Bhutan Police to
assist victimized women and children through a toll free helpline. Similar
units will be established in other areas in Bhutan. To complement the efforts
of the National Commission and the Royal Bhutan Police, sensitivity
programmes on human trafficking will continue to be provided for the police,
the judiciary and law makers. A study on violence against women has also
been commissioned, and will be published soon.
[From Bhutan’s reply to the Questionnaire for Collection of Information and Data to Support
Regional Studies on National Mechanisms for Gender Equality, 2009]
3. Legal reforms
Legal reform has changed patriarchal notions of the family as well as marital relationships. A
good example of how this has been achieved is reported by the national machinery of the
Republic of Korea. Several amendments to their Civil Law in 2008 now provide greater
recognition of women’s marital rights and status. (CEDAW, 2007). In the Republic of Korea,
women were barred from becoming the legal head of a family, and children were obligated to
keep their father's family name under the Family Headship System. This practice was
abolished by a decision of the Constitutional Court. An amendment to the Civil Act now
allows couples to give the mother’s last name to their children, while in general still
maintaining “the principle of inheriting the father’s family name and the family name by jus
sanguinis.” The amended Civil Act prescribes that, with the parents’ agreement, a child may
continue to use the mother’s family name, even if the father has acknowledged the child as
his. If the parents are unable to reach an agreement, the child can continue using the mother’s
family name with approval of the court. The previous Civil Act prescribed, “Women shall not
remarry within six months from the day when the previous marriage relationship is
terminated,” in order to prevent possible confusion in determining the biological father of a
child conceived during the period of going through divorce and remarriage. This was
amended to abolish the remarriage prohibition period which, incidentally, was applicable
only to women.
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D. Increased public awareness and support for gender equality
National mechanisms have exerted tremendous efforts and spent considerable resources to
increase public awareness and support for gender equality. An advocacy strategy that has
become increasingly important is that of broadening the base of understanding and
commitment to these issues through public awareness campaigns.
1. Examples of how celebratory activities serve as advocacy tools
The Government of the Republic of Korea fully utilized the mass media to raise public
awareness of the illegality of prostitution in 2003 when the Task Force for the Elimination of
Prostitution was launched. The following year, it initiated the Comprehensive Prostitution
Prevention Campaign Plan to raise awareness of the newly enacted legislation. Campaign
leaflets and collections of cases depicting the rehabilitation of victims were produced and
widely distributed. In 2005, the Ministry of Gender Equality ran the White Tie Campaign, an
anti-prostitution campaign targeting men in their 20s and 30s. It was the first time that a
government agency adopted a teaser advertisement to attract public attention to the need to
prevent prostitution, in addition to running a website to appeal to the young generation.
Thailand undertook a Say No to Violence Campaign in November 2008, with the entire
month of November being dedicated to ending violence against women. The campaign
included a national seminar marking the first anniversary of the Act on the Protection of
Victims of Domestic Violence. About 1,200 people, including high-level government
officials, practitioners from the public and private sectors and the media attended.
In the Philippines, a group called Men Opposed to Violence against Women Everywhere!
(MOVE) organized an advocacy run with the theme, MOVE! Run to End VAW, in
November 2009, in observance of the country’s 18 day campaign to end violence against
women. The main objective was to raise awareness of the role of men in gender equality and
in the elimination of violence against women.
Since 2001, Singapore’s Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports and other
stakeholders have raised public awareness on issues of domestic violence through the annual
organization of the National Family Violence Networking Symposium. This Forum serves to
strengthen partnerships and to share best practices in policy and research against violence
against women.
2. Examples of how gender champions serve as advocacy tools
Recognition of gender champions and awards for best practices regarding gender advocacy
have also been undertaken in a number of countries. The Philippine Commission for Women
has an annual Search for Outstanding VAW-Responsive Local Government Unit in place to
recognize innovative programmes and methods of local governments in addressing violence
against women. It also gives Gender Justice Awards to judges ruling on violence against
women cases in a gender sensitive manner.
Thailand presents awards of good performance to heads of women’s groups or local
administrative organizations whose action plans and projects are considered best practices in
gender equality advocacy.
In Japan, a Corporation Award for the Promotion of Gender Equality is presented to
companies who institute active measures to promote positive action in the promotion of the
57
skills of female workers. Both Mongolia and the Republic of Korea give annual Gender
Equality Awards as part of their awareness-raising efforts.
VIII. Limitations and gaps
Despite these positive developments, national mechanisms for gender equality and women’s
empowerment are aware of the shortcomings in their work. The achievements of the
mechanisms have been uneven. The gaps and limitations faced by these mechanisms will be
discussed in this section in terms of their internal organizational structures, resources and
processes in relation to their accountability as structures to promote and realize the goals of
gender equality.
A. Analytic framework
“Accountability has to start with asserting the responsibility of public authorities to respect
and promote women’s rights” (ESCAP, 2009b). Within a human rights framework for
development, Governments are accountable in the following ways (UNFPA):
• To respect a right means refraining from interfering with the enjoyment of the right.
• To protect a right means enacting laws that create mechanisms to prevent violation of
the right by state authorities or by non-state actors. This protection is to be granted
equally to all.
• To fulfil a right means to take active steps to put in place institutions and procedures,
including the allocation of resources to enable people to enjoy the right. A rightsbased approach develops the capacity of duty-bearers to meet their obligations and
encourages rights holders to claim their rights.
National machineries for gender equality are held responsible for the promotion and
protection of women’s human rights, and have been instituted to ensure that measures and
resources are put into place that will enable these rights to be fulfilled. An assessment of their
work, therefore, takes into account the following: focus of their mandates and functions;
adequacy of resources, processes and measures to protect and promote gender equality; and
effectiveness of national mechanisms for gender equality and women’s empowerment in
facilitating the fulfillment of women’s rights and the promotion of gender equality.
B. Focus of mandates and functions
In the first chapter of this report, we noted that the title held by many of the national
machineries link women’s concerns with other social issues or sectors, including child and
community development, social welfare and invalids. The emphasis on women and family or
women and children may imply that the concerns addressed by the national women’s
machineries focus on women’s role as mothers and caregivers, rather than as individuals,
who are entitled to certain inviolable rights. This analysis is strengthened by declarations
from the national machineries themselves that their offices are concerned with maintaining
harmony between women’s concerns and those of the family or community, or even ensuring
that women’s issues will not be inconsistent with a country’s culture or traditions. As the
author has stated in another paper, this situation is akin to accommodation rather than
transformation, whereby strategies to address women’s interests are made to accomodate
overriding cultural and social prescriptions on gender, rather than to introduce measures
enabling women to break out of disempowering and subordinate positions (Torres, 2009).
The link made between women’s concerns and other sectors is perceived to be marginalized,
and connotes an approach that emphasizes helping the weak rather than providing measures
to enhance individual agency, capability and empowerment. Within this context, it is not
difficult to understand the presence of welfarist and women to guide the development
directions of many of the programmes and policies that have been introduced. Of course,
58
given the levels of poverty and underdevelopment in many countries of the region, welfare
and needs based strategies are of prime importance. These should be complemented by
capability-building measures, including more actions to improve the image of women in the
public sphere,(economic, political or cultural),as capable and decisive persons. Most
countries in the region introduce measures that enable women to accommodate both
productive and reproductive work, rather than programmes that promote gender parity in both
housework and paid work.
C. Structures, resources, processes and measures
From their own assessments, the national machineries cite the following limitations in their
work for gender equality:
1. Lack of capacity
Despite the number of activities designed to develop capacities for gender mainstreaming,
there is still a lack of overall capacity in government. The clarity of gender equality goals is
often limited to the central core of national women’s machineries. Many government officials
and ministry personnel still fail to see the importance of integrating gender into their goals
and plans. This limitation is most evident among the offices in charge of macroeconomic
planning, finance and national security issues. While there are nations wherein gender has
become a cross-cutting feature of national plans, there are also many that are completely
silent on this matter. The national mechanisms may not even be involved at all in the work of
national planning, and there continue to be suggestions to abolish some of these mechanisms.
In many instances, policies and programmes fail to identify and address the structural factors
that cause gender inequalities. More seriously, one shadow report alleges that one country’s
national women’s machinery, contrary to the country’s official reports, seldom defines its
work within the framework of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women or that of the Beijing Platform for Action.
Some national women’s machineries assert that they are marginalized in comparison to other
ministries. In a significant number of countries, the national women’s machineries are not
high-level mechanisms with appropriate power and resources. As noted in one report, the
weakness of gender equality affairs in the power structure is unlikely to change without
stronger policy commitments and structural reforms. Thus, many national women’s
machineries have low financial support from Governments, are inadequately staffed and
suffer from insufficient authority to coordinate with their partners in other ministries and at
lower levels of implementation.
National machineries tend to function as administrative offices rather than active advocates
for gender equality, spending more time on projects rather than on policy reforms for gender
equality, This makes it difficult for any real work with clear outcomes to be taken on board as
programmes. National women’s machineries are short-handed, limiting their visibility in
society, and curtailing their ability to engage in adequate dialogues with social partners on
issues on critical concern.
Fifteen years after the Beijing Platform for Action, not all national women’s machineries
have adequate knowledge to clearly identify and understand issues of gender discrimination
in their respective societies. Gender research, sex-disaggregated statistics and other forms of
information on women’s concerns and discriminations are often not available. Where they
have been developed, they may still fail to provide data on all of the key concerns of
international and national instruments or conventions, especially at subnational levels. The
mechanisms are aware of these limitations and that they are saddled with insufficient
parameters around which to design their plans for gender equality. Gender analysis and
gender impact assessments have yet to become routine steps in development planning among
59
governments. Moreover, it is reported that many of the national women’s machineries
themselves have failed to provide adequate training in the generation and analysis of sexdisaggregated statistics among national line agencies, and for local level government
organizations.
While gender budget initiatives have been put into place in a number of countries, this has
not always translated into effective implementation and significantly greater allocations for
gender equality. The problem is that national women’s machineries have failed to influence
the overall allocation of budgetary resources, especially at the macroeconomic level. Even
when the processes have been established in collaboration with departments or ministries of
finance, the overriding gender blindness of economic policies has hampered the ability of
national machineries to advocate for a broader incorporation of gender equality goals in
national plans and sectoral budgets. Thus, gender budgets are more often than not “the
gender-sensitive distribution of pre-assigned resources at the programme level within
individual sectoral or line ministries,” rather than further upstream in the government finance
system, where focus can be put on ensuring adequate resources for mainstreaming gender in
the overall policy framework of governments (ESCAP 2009b).
2. Lack of coordination and collaboration
Despite the multiple number of mechanisms that have sprouted to implement international
conventions on women’s rights and the diverse forms of coordinative processes that have
been designed, they have not always been effective. Many commissions, inter-agency
committees, and other coordinative structures fail to meet regularly. For instance, the
mechanism that is supposed to coordinate activities across ministries in one country meets
perfunctorily and only once a year. Clearly, it fails to provide effective centralized
coordination and review of policies. At other times, members of coordinating committees are
inadequately informed about issues, or push agendas of their own rather than those raised by
women at the grass roots level.
There are also instances when coordinative mechanisms are inefficient because their roles
vis-à-vis the implementation of plans for women are not given sufficient recognition or
incentive. Designated gender focal points in many countries are burdened with other
responsibilities in addition to their work for women’s affairs, and may de-prioritize the latter
when faced with deadlines pertaining to their main ministry functions. In some instances, the
gender focal points are inactive or have been totally disbanded, sometimes at the behest of
the ministries themselves. One shadow report claims the non-governmental organizations do
not know who the gender focal points are in the line ministries since they have no visible
projects. In several other instances, the gender focal points are perceived to lack adequate
information and skills on how to deliver programmes and services for women.
A more common problem is tokenism. This happens when non-governmental organizations
are made part of the national women’s machineries, such as being appointed or elected as
heads of inter-agency committees, but then are not given the authority to call government
agencies for meetings or hold them accountable to agreed commitments and goals. In
addition, they may have no secretariat or financial support for their efforts. This situation can
seriously hamper the effectiveness of the multi-stakeholder mechanisms and demotivate the
women’s groups from participating in the national effort.
Therefore, national mechanisms must continue to reach out to women’s organizations as their
partners in the promotion of gender equality. The mechanisms in which they are members
should become vital and active organizations that truly enable different sectors of women to
express their interests, address critical problems with government support, and develop
60
suitable measures to effectively champion women’s rights. Government mechanisms can also
learn from non-governmental organizations, which may have a longer history of direct action
for women’s empowerment and gender equality. In fact, the values of participation,
transparency, accountability, respect for diversity and consensus-building were promoted by
these organizations long before national machineries for gender equality embraced them as
their own. The effective approaches used by these groups can be replicated and multiplied
across a nation through development planning and programming. The engagement of civil
society with national mechanisms in the common pursuit of gender equality goals is an
important strategy that cannot be overlooked.
3. Devolution of power as an impediment to gender mainstreaming
The lack of gender sensitivity among local officials often conspires with conservative gender
traditions and religious fundamentalism to prevent the introduction and promotion of gender
equality goals, especially in rural settings. The continued seclusion of women along with the
restrictions placed on their mobility in some societies prevent them from having access to
information, training skills, credit and opportunities. One report states that conservative and
religious groups have stopped women from participating in cultural and recreational
activities, and have gone as far as to attack them for participating in non-governmental
organizations’ activities. Another report maintains that fundamentalists groups use regional
autonomy to influence local policy makers to enact local regulations that are discriminatory
to women on behalf of religion and to preserve the morality of the people. In another country,
conservative beliefs upheld by local officials have led to the denial of adequate reproductive
health services for women.
Women’s mechanisms, councils and committees at subnational levels sometimes need to be
radically reconstituted in order to be effectively aligned with directions set by the national
machinery. Sometimes staff do not have adequate sensitivity to gender issues, and may have
been put into positions of power by virtue of marriage or kinship with male politicians and
other power holders in the community and nation. Thus, they may subscribe to traditional
gender values and be resistant to egalitarian and emancipating programmes and policies.
There is even some conflict experienced by the national mechanisms for gender equality
when dealing with non-governmental organizations, who resist incorporating the national
plans into their own more limited activities for women, which may be focused on such things
as micro-lending programmes that make no effort to break down the barriers of traditional
gender norms.
D. Lack of implementation of women’s rights and gender equality goals
The continuing pervasiveness of traditional gender norms, the resistance or indifference of
some high-level government officials towards critical concerns of international instruments
of gender equality, ignorance of legal reforms and poor enforcement of laws, result in
continued high rates of violence against women in many countries of the region.
Thus, in some countries the laws against violence against women may be there but may not
be properly implemented. In other countries, inadequate laws and policies, as well as poor
enforcement, fail to curtail traditional social practices that sanction violence against women.
In some instances, the mechanisms themselves may opt to resolve family violence by
promoting family harmony and unity, instead of encouraging women to file cases against the
perpetrators and to stand up for their rights.
For instance, one State in the region has entrusted cases of violence against women to a
separate Human Rights Commission, but has not provided any separate funding for legal
proceedings. Thus, not all cases meriting legal support are given assistance and resolved. In
61
another instance, the existing laws are judged to be unsuited to address the types of violence
faced by women. According to non-governmental organizations in another country, the
national women’s machinery has not enacted any public awareness raising programmes on
violence against women, nor have they provided appropriate services to survivors of rape and
domestic violence. Women’s groups in another nation also claim that the manner in which
violence against women is treated as a legal and health issue conceals rather than reveals the
magnitude and seriousness of domestic violence for women.
Despite considerable success in gender-responsive legal reforms, there are still customary
laws, as well as outated civil and personal laws in place which discriminate against women,
Deeply entrenched power structures boosted by socio-cultural norms, traditional attitudes,
practices and systems, have served as obstacles to confronting various forms of
discrimination against women through legal processes. Respect for cultural and religious
diversity have been used as a pretext for violating women’s human rights. In some instances,
the resurgence of fundamentalist religious beliefs has also become a formidable obstacle to
gender equality legislation (ESCAP, 2009c). Thus, there remains a significant need to revise
many more provisions of law, especially in the civil and penal codes of different nations, and
to harmonize customary law with human rights based standards. Apart from specific issues,
there are still some countries, which have failed to enact national laws that define
discrimination against women within the terms of Article 1 of the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.
IX. Conclusion: Remaining opportunities and challenges
A. Sustained action for gender equality
The biggest challenges faced by national women’s machineries are ensuring the sustainability
of their gains and overcoming the above identified shortcomings. Over the years, various
mechanisms have emerged to more fully address the issues of gender discrimination. These
have been instituted in compliance with international instruments, as part of the increased
sensitization of governments to human rights, and also as direct responses to emerging issues.
But concern with form must now be translated into substantive gains and impact on women.
The various structures and processes should now be gauged in terms of how they effectively
result in the protection and promotion of various aspects of women’s rights.
Given the situation in Asia and the Pacific, the first set of outcomes needs to be associated
with results that describe movement away from traditional gender norms, and the attainment
of greater equity in the socio-cultural expectations of gender roles. Hopefully, effectively
breaking down patriarchal gender norms will translate into - fewer incidences of violence
against women; greater equity in accessing education, health, employment, social protection
and other social benefits; increased meaningful participation of women in politics and
governance; and a whole-of-society commitment to addressing these inequalities.
But social processes inevitably interact with economic trends. Therefore, national women’s
machineries must use various tools, including gender-aware budgets, research and analysis,
to fully understand how economic policies and events affect women’s lives; from the
household level to the national level, and within national boundaries and across borders.
Understanding and discernment can be translated into positive actions with support from
different stakeholders already working in formal collaborations. These collaborations can
range from organized women in local communities; women and men in local government
positions who share these commitments; women and men in parliaments, the judicial system
62
and executive agencies of government with gender equality perspectives; to regional blocs,
bilateral and multi-lateral organizations imbued with gender perspectives, which are
committed to these same goals.
The various resource materials and advocacy methods already developed for gender
mainstreaming by the national mechanisms for gender equality can be used to build the
capabilities of these different support groups. Multi-media materials and modules for gender
awareness, gender responsive development planning, gender responsive law making and law
enforcement, should be disseminated among the stakeholders, so that they can initiate actions
to effect measurable improvements in fulfilling the rights of women. Orientation sessions and
training on different aspects of gender mainstreaming need to be conducted continuously,
especially because the composition of stakeholder groups can be fluid and changing. More
visible and attractive public awareness campaigns can also be organized in collaboration with
diverse sectors, to raise interest and generate commitment to the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Beijing Platform for Action,
the Millennium Development Goals, and to specific components of national plans for gender
equality. The internet and other media, as well as mobile telephone technologies, should be
utilized for the dissemination and acquisition of knowledge, capabilities and information.
National machineries for gender equality can develop these resources in order to reach out to
their constituencies, work out solutions for women facing vulnerable and critical situations,
and mobilize action and support for their programmes and services.
More active efforts to advocate for the realization of gender equality goals should be
addressed to resisting groups, such as religious organizations and conservative power groups.
Furthermore, a gender equality challenge for national machineries is to convince indifferent
decision makers, who fail to see the relevance of gender equality in their separate spheres of
work in all sectors, of the importance of the gender equality agenda. Specific research to
uncover the gender impact of their activities needs to be completed. The credibility and
expertise of the national machineries for gender equality in these areas need to be developed,
and effective approaches mobilized, for enlisting the support of officials.
The fulfillment of women’s human rights is hindered by events in all aspects of national life,
as well as by events which transpire in other parts of the globe. It is urgent that national
mechanisms for gender equality across countries work together more effectively to address
pernicious problems, such as economic crises, armed conflict, violence against women and
children and human trafficking as well as the emerging concerns of climate change and
disaster risk management. Regional and subregional exchanges and collaborations, as well as
networking efforts with nations which already have raised the bar on gender equality goals,
can also result in the sharing or coordinated development of good practices in mainstreaming
gender issues within economic, cultural and political spheres of governance and citizen
action.
B. Political will
Current limitations to the work of national mechanisms have been linked to their
ineffectiveness in avidly influencing political decisions critical to moving forward the goals
of gender equality. Even mechanisms lodged in the Cabinet or Offices of Prime Ministers
have not been always effective, and their priorities may become altered by what are
considered to be more pressing concerns related to national security, political dissent or
economic growth. Political systems and structures of governance are still not fully aligned
with gender equality goals. Even while governments may have agreed to enhance the stature
of national machineries for gender equality, the gender perspective of high officials is still
critical in enabling them to function well.
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In this respect, it is important for national mechanisms to incorporate, in their plans for
action, the goal of achieving gender parity in legislative structures and increased
representation by gender-sensitive individuals in executive positions of government. Studies
have shown that this process has been most effectively achieved in local settings, where
selected individuals from organized women’s groups have emerged to work for gender
equality through political representation. However, women’s representation in national
legislature or parliaments of Asia and the Pacific has been dismally low, if not completely
absent.
Many national mechanisms have already introduced instruments and created collaborations
for enabling women to join political elections and be involved in formal structures of
governance. These activities need to be more systematically pursued, so that women’s
concerns can become part of the parliamentary agenda, which can, in turn, influence the
executive processes of government. Women electorates need to realize the key significance
of having representatives within legislative structures who are sensitive to gender issues.
Thus, part of the programmes of national mechanisms should be voter education for women,
into which is incorporated a gender equality agenda.
Other measures to express the political will of women will have to come into play in those
nations wherein elections are not part of the political process. In these cases, the
representation of women in key executive positions of governance is important, as is their
active work in the direct implementation and service delivery. The national mechanisms in
these countries need to enlist the commitment of women in executive positions to advocate
gender equality goals, through their direct involvement in its processes and activities, as well
as through capacity-building for gender advocacy.
Apart from the representation of women in formal structures, women’s actions in civil
society provide another environment for expressing political will. Women’s nongovernmental organizations, various women’s interest groups, trade unions and livelihood
associations need to build their own capacities to address issues of discrimination and/or
violence against, and infringement of, women’s rights. As noted by Nighat Said Khan,
executive director of ASR Centre in Pakistan, at the recently concluded Asia-Pacific NGO
Forum, "It is extremely important to bring back politics into the movements. We are no
longer asking the fundamental whys but responding to crises" (Somera, 2009). National
machineries for gender equality must develop the perspectives, skills and political support
that will enable them to be part of key mechanisms that address women’s discrimination and
various expressions of inequalities.
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72
Table 1. List of Countries included in the report
REGION
COUNTRIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
East and North - East Asia
South East Asia
South and South-West Asia
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
Pacific
73
China
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
Hong Kong , China
Japan
Mongolia
Macao, China
Republic of Korea
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
Indonesia
Lao People’s Domocratic Republic (the)
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Iran (Islamic Republic of)
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
American Samoa
Australia
Cook Islands
Fiji
French Polynesia
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall islands
Micronesia
Nauru
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Niue
Northern Marianas
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
APPENDIX
Matrix 1: Evolution of National Machineries on Gender Equality in Asia and the Pacific4
National Machineries for the Advancement of Women in ESCAP Member States in Asia
ESCAP
Member State
Afghanistan
Pre-Beijing
Society for the Protection of
Women
Institution for the promotion of
women since 1928
Bangladesh
Beijing Fourth World
Conference 1995
Beijing+5
1996-2000
Beijing+15
Current
2006-2009
Ministry of Women's
Affairs (MoWA)
Ministry of Women's
Affairs (MoWA)
Ministry of Women's Affairs
(MoWA)
Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MoWA)
1995- National Council for
Women’s Development
(NCWD) established,
The Ministry of Women
and Children Affairs
(MWCA) acts as secretariat.
Ministry of Women and
Children Affairs (MWCA)
Ministry of Women and Children
Affairs
(MWCA)
Ministry of Women and Children Affairs
(MoWCA)
2004- National Commission for
Women and Children (NCWC)
(January )
NCWC de-linked from the Royal
Govt of Bhutan in 2007.
NCWC (as fully autonomous body
since August 2008)
2002- The Social Sffairs Services
upgraded to level of a department:
Community Development
Department, Ministry of Culture,
Youth and Sports and issues
pertaining to women and children
addressed under the Family and
Employment Services Division of
Community Development
Department (CDD ).
Department of Community
Development in the Ministry of
Culture, Youth and Sportsas focal
agency for women’s affairs.
In July 2004 it again became the
Ministry of Women’s Affairs
(MoWA) - the national machinery
for promoting the role and status of
National Commission for Women and Children
(NCWC)
Bhutan
Brunei
Darussalam
1987- Women's Unit Section
established at the Ministry of
Culture, Youth and Sports.
1993- Social Affairs Services
Unit set up under the Ministry of
Culture, Youth and Sports and
issues pertaining to women and
children moved to the Family
Division of the Social Affairs
Services Unit.
Social Affairs Services Unit
under the Ministry of Culture
Social Affairs Services Unit
under the Ministry of Culture
Cambodia
Women’s Association of
Cambodia (WAC)- mass
organization from central to
village level, involved in
Secretariat of State for
Women’s Affairs*
1996- Secretariat elevated to
ministry status - Ministry of
Women’s Affairs and a
minister was appointed.
4
Beijing+10
2001-2005
Only of countries included in this study
74
Department of Community Development under
Ministry of Culture Youth and Sports
Ministry of Women’s Affairs* (MoWA)
Cambodian National Council for Women
(CNCW)
China
political campaigning and also in
relief work especially supporting
widows & destitute women.
1993- new Secretariat of State
for Women’s Affairs* assumed
many of the functions of the pre
existing women’s associations at
the national, provincial and
district levels.
National Working Committee
on Women and Children
founded in February 1990 as a
coordinating agency under the
State Council in charge of the
work of women and children.
women in Cambodia.
The ministerial mandate was
expanded to include veterans’
affairs in 1998 – Ministry of
Women and Veteran’s
Affairs (MoWVA)
National Working
Committee on Women and
Children (NWCWC)
Democratic
People's Republic
of Korea
Hong Kong,
China
India
Indonesia
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
Ministry of Political
Affairs* (II) and the
Presidential Commission on
Women’s Affairs* preceded
the Ministry of Gender
Equality
National Working
Committee on Children and
Women under the State
Council, which is the organ of
China’s Government
responsible for the affairs of
children and women.
On September 10, 2001 the
National Coordination
Committee for the
Implementation of the
CEDAW was organized
consisting of the officials of
the Presidium of the Supreme
People’s Assembly and the
Cabinet.
Ministry of Gender
Equality* as national agency
in charge of formulating and
implementing women’s
policies.
National Working Committee on
Women and Children, under the
State Council
National Working Committee on Women and
Children under the State Council
The State institution for the
improvement of the women’s rights
under the CEDAW is the National
Coordination Committee for the
Implementation of the CEDAW.
The National Coordination Committee for the
Implementation of the CEDAW
2001- The Women’s Commission
(WoC) was set up as a high level
central mechanism to advise the
government on women’s issues and
to champion women’s interests.
Women’s Commission
(WoC)
1971- The Committee on the
Status of Women created to
comprehensively examine all
questions relating to the rights
and status of women.
1985- Department of Women
and Child Development**
established under Ministry of
Human Resources Development,
accountable to Parliament.
National Commission for
Women (NCW), a statutory
body, established in 1992.
1978 - Ministry of the Status
and Role of Women*
Department of Women and
Child Development
(DWCD)
Department of Women and
Child Development
(DWCD)
The DWCD has been upgraded to
Ministry of Women and Child
Development on Jan. 30 2006
Ministry of Women and Child Development
www.wcd.nic.in/
Ministry of the Status and
Role of Women* converted
in 1999 to the Ministry of
Women Empowerment*
State Ministry of Women
Empowerment (SMWE)
State Ministry of Women’s Empowerment
(SMWE)
Bureau of Women Affairs.
Upgraded to Center for
Participation of
Women (1997)* pursuant to
Since 2001 State Ministry of
Women Empowerment
served as the national
machinery for the
empowerment of women.
Center for Women’s
Participation
Later In 2005, the Center
developed its functions from
Women’s Participation to Women
Center for Women and Family Affairs
75
an order by President
Mohammad Rhatami in 1997.
Japan
Lao People's
Democratic
Republic(the)
Cabinet Office responsible
for “the promotion of the
formation of a gender-equal
society”
Council for Gender
Equality and the Gender
Equality Bureau established
within the Cabinet Office to
enhance and strengthen the
national machinery for the
promotion of gender equality.
2002 Lao National
Commission for the
Advancement of Women
(NCAW) established as the
mechanism institution to
promote gender equality and
Women’s Advancement.
2003 Decree No.37
established the Lao NCAW
officially. The Lao NCAW is
different from LWU - - the
Lao NCAW is a state
organization, but both are
committed to protect the
rights and interests of Lao
women and to bring about
gender equality.
1994- Office for Gender
Equality established in the
Prime Minister’s Office
Headquarters for the
Promotion of Gender Equality
established in July 1994 for
smooth and effective promotion
of measures towards the
formation of a gender-equal
society.
1955- Lao Patriotic Women’s
Association, to mobilize women
for the Lao People’s
Revolutionary Party
1972- Lao Women’s Union
established and role and mandate
expanded.
Macao, China
Malaysia
1978- Women’s Affairs
Division (WAD)
1983 Prime Minister’s Dept
upgraded to Women’s Affairs
Department at the Ministry of
National Unity and Social
Development in 1990.
Maldives
1979- “Preparatory
Committee for the
International Decade for
Women under the Natl Planning
Agency
1981-The Preparatory
Committee renamed National
Women’s Committee
1986- The Office for Women’s
and Family Affairs.
Consultative Commission
for Women’s Affairs
(CCWA)
1997-Department of
Women’s Affairs under the
Ministry of National Unity
and Social Development
1999 - the Women’s Affairs
Department was transferred
to the Prime Minister’s
Department.
1993-DWA expanded and
elevated to the Ministry of
Youth, Women’s Affairs
and Sports *
2001- Council for Gender
Equality and the Gender Equality
Bureau established whereby the
national machinery for the
promotion of Gender Equality in
Japan has been significantly
strengthened.
Council for Gender Equality – under the
leadership of the Prime Minister, the Chief Cabinet
Secretary who chairs the Council, and the Minister
of State for Social Affairs and Gender Equality.
National Commission for the
Advancement of Women
(NCAW)
Lao National Commission for the Advancement
of Women (LaoNCAW)
Gender Equality Bureau
Lao Women’s Union
Consultative Commission for Women’s Affairs
(CCWA)
2001-Women’s Affairs
Department renamed as the
Ministry of Women’s
Affairs followed by the
Ministry of Women and
Family Development
(MWFD).
2004- Ministry of Women,
Family and Community
Development (MWFCD)
Ministry of Women, Family and Community
Development (MWFCD)
2003- Was finally renamed
the Ministry of Gender,
Family Development and
Social Security
(BPA+10)
Ministry of Gender, Family
Development and Social
Security*
(BPA+10)
Ministry of Gender and Family (MGF as of
2006)
1996- The MYWAS renamed
the Ministry of Women's
Affairs and Social Welfare
(MWASW).
The National Machinery for the
Advancement of Women, Ministry
of Gender and Family (MGF)
carries sole responsibility of
76
Mongolia
Affairs established to promote
women in devt while the Natl
Women’s Committee was
renamed the National
Women’s Council (NWC)
1989- The Office for Women’s
Affairs upgraded as
Department of Women’s
Affairs (DWA).
Prior to 1990, the Mongolian
Women's Federation was
executing both a government
and non-governmental functions
1992- Population and Social
Protection Department of the
Ministry of Health and Social
WelfareIn addition, a "Youth,
Family and Women's agency"
which is an implementing
organisation, established under
the Ministry of Health and
Social Welfare.
1998: The MWASW changed
to the Ministry of Women's
Affairs and Social Security
(MWASS).
fulfilling State obligations under
the Convention.
2001 National Council on
Gender Equality established
as a forum for
consensus building and
consultation with a wide
range of stakeholders
1996 Adopted the National
Programme for the
Advancement of Women
2002 replaced by the
National Programme for
Gender Equality.
During this decade, evolved
from a single desk officer at
the Ministry of Social
Welfare and Labour to a
Prime Minister-headed
National Committee on
Gender Equality with fulltime functioning secretariat
and resources.
"1996Myanmar National
Committee for Women’s
Affairs" (MNCWA)
established
Myanmar
Nepal
National Council for the
Development of Children
(1994)****
Pakistan
1979- A Division in the
Cabinet Secretariat
1989- upgraded to the level of a
full fledged ministry – Ministry
of Women Development
1995Ministry of Women
Children and Social
Welfare established as the
highest level national
machinery for the
advancement of women*
2001 National Human
Rights Commission
(Act passed in 1997 but
constituted only in 2001).
1993-1996 – the Youth
Affairs Division merged with
the Ministry of Women
Development (MoWD)
1997-The Youth Affairs
2000 (MWSW incorporated
“Children” within its
institutional fold to focus on
issues of children in general
and of the girl child in
particular, hence the Ministry
of Women, Children &
Social Welfare (MWCSW)
2004-2005- Ministry of
Women and Development
reborn as a result of
separation from the erstwhile
MOWD, SW&SE
77
The National Council on Gender
Equality which was established in
2001 and led by the Vice Chairman
of the Cabinet Office could not
become a mechanism for
integration of gender issues into the
various sectoral policies,
programmes and planning and for
coordination of the comprehensive
activities under the National
Program for Gender Equality.
Therefore, the National
Committee on Gender Equality
led by the Prime Minister was
established by the Government in
2005.
National Committee on Gender Equality
2003"Myanmar National
Committee for Women’s Affairs"
(MNCWA) established and
functions comprehensively and
widely for the development and
security of women and enhances
cooperation nationally and
internationally,
National Women’s Commission
in 2002
(defunct as of 2004)
"Myanmar National Committee for Women’s
Affairs" (MNCWA)
(www.mopa.gov.mm/aboutmyanmar/wam.html
The Government has designated the Ministry of
Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement as a
national focal point Ministry to carry out all
matters related to women.
Ministry of Women Development
(MoWD) is the national focal
machinery for the advancement of
women and implementation of
CEDAW.
Ministry of Women Development (MoWD)
Ministry of Women, Children and Social
Welfare
Its goal is mainstreaming gender into national
development through encouraging gender equality
and the empowerment of women.
(MoWD)
Division taken away, merged
with Ministry of Social
Welfare and Special
Education
Philippines
National Commission on the
Role of Filipino Women
(NCRFW) since 1975
National Commission on the
Role of Filipino Women
(NCRFW) expanded and
reorganized in 1997.
Republic of
Korea
1983- Korean Women’s
Development Institute
(KWDI) established under the
Ministry of Health and Welfare
1983- National Commission on
Women’s Policies (NCWP)
installed to perform the function
of “channeling through,” e.g.,
receiving policy
recommendations from KWDI
1988- a new national machinery
was established at the
ministerial level – the Ministry
of Political Affairs(MOPA).
Singapore
Sri Lanka
1996 Inter-Ministry
Committee (IMC) on
CEDAW set up to monitor
Singapore’s implementation
of the Convention
2002- The Women’s Desk of
the Ministry of Community
Development, Youth and
Sports (MCYS) as national
focal point for women
National Commission on the
Role of Filipino Women
National Commission on the Role
of Filipino Women
National Commission on the Role of Filipino
Women
In March 2002, the Special
Committee on Women of
the National Assembly
became a standing committee
as the Women’s Affairs
Committee. Unlike the
Special Committee, the
Women’s Affairs Committee
has the right to make
legislative proposals and to
vote on legislations related to
the Ministry of Gender
Equality and Family.
2003 - Women’s Policy
Coordination Committee founded
as an institutional framework for
reviewing and coordinating
Government’s women-related
programmes and policies
2003- Korean Institute for
Gender Equality Promotion and
Education founded in 2003.
June 2005- Ministry of Gender
Equality reorganized as the
Ministry of Gender Equality and
Family (MOGEF) with a new
mandate in family policies.
2008- Inauguration of Ministry of
Gender Equality
Singapore has two main national
bodies overseeing women-related
matters. They are the InterMinistry Committee (IMC) on
CEDAW set up in 1996 to monitor
Singapore’s implementation of the
Convention and the Women’s
Desk, established in 2002 as the
national focal point for women
matters. The Women’s Desk is also
the secretariat for the IMC on
CEDAW. (BPA+15)
Ministry of Gender Equality
(MOGE)
2002- The Ministry of
Community Development,
Youth and Sports set up the
Women’s Desk to serve as
Singapore’s national
women’s machinery.
Women’s Desk under the
Ministry of Community Dev
and Sports lead agency and
the NWM. The InterMinistry Committee on
CEDAW is the Gender
Management Team and the
Inter-Ministerial Steering
Committee
Inter-Ministry Committee
also functions as f ocal point.
2002 Women’s Desk
establishedas the national
focal point
1978 Women’s Bureau
In 1983, a Cabinet Ministry
assigned to include women’s
affairs among its functions,
which evolved into an
independent ministry
1994Ministry of Women’s
Affairs in [and the National
Inter-Ministry Committee (IMC) on CEDAW
and Women’s Desk
Ministry of Child Development and Women’s
Empowerment
(MCDWE)
78
Thailand
Committee on Women in
1993].
The OWAFD, the Ministry of
Social Development and
Human Security acts as a
national machinery for the
promotion of gender equality.
Office of Women’s Affairs and
Family Development
(OWAFD) is the core
mechanism.
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
1985- National Committee for
the Women’s Decade
1993- National Committee for
the Advancement of Women
(NCFAW)
2002-OWAFD upgraded
from the divisional level to
the departmental level since
In 2002, the ONCWA was
transferred to the newly
formed Ministry of Social
Development and Human
Security.
Thai National Commission
on Women’s Affairs
(NCWA)
Office for the Promotion of
Equality (OPE)
2001-National Committee
for the Advancement of
Women (NCFAW)
enhanced as a sector - wide
committee made up of leaders
from ministries, central
agencies and mass
organizations.
79
Office of Women’s Affairs and
Family Development (OWAFD)
National Commission on
Women’s Affairs and Family
Development (NCWAFD) is the
national mechanism at the highest
level.
National Commission on
Women’s Affairs (NCWA) as the
focal point for promoting and
coordinating women’s affairs.
Office of the Advisor of the
Prime Minister on the Promotion
of Equality
The Office of the Secretary of
State for the Promotion of
Equality
Office of Women’s Affairs and Family
Development (OWAFD), a departmental level
unit under the Ministry of Social Development and
Human Security.
Secretary of State for the Promotion of Equality
(SEPI) under the Cabinet of the Prime Minister
along with gender focal points at the ministerial
and regional levels.
2008strengthened to include the National
Committee for the
Advancement of Women (NCFAW) and the
Ministry of Labor, Invalids and
Social Affairs (MOLISA).
Vietnam Women’s Union serves as NCFAW’s
main partner
National Machineries on Gender Equality in ESCAP Member States in the Pacific5
ESCAP
Member State
Pre-Beijing
Australia
Office for Women
Cook Islands
1984- The Cook Islands
National Council of
Women established
1987 Ministry for
Women established
Fiji
Beijing Fourth
World Conference
1995
Beijing+5
1996-2000
Beijing+10
2001-2005
The Minister for the Status of Women works with other
Government Ministers to ensure that women’s issues and
gender equality are taken into consideration in policy and
program development and implementation.
The Office for Women (OfW) supports the Minister in
ensuring that women’s issues and gender equality are taken
into consideration in policy and programme development
and implementation.
The OfW is the central source of advice for Government
agencies on the impact of Government policies and
programs for
Australian women.
Gender and Development Division within the Ministry of
Internal Affairs
1997- The Women’s Office
created
Nauru
New Zealand
Samoa
Between 1991 and 2003 as
Independent Ministry of
Women Affairs
Ministry of Women
Affairs
Ministry of Women Affairs
2003, as a result of public sector
reforms, the Ministry of
Women’s Affairs amalgamated
with the Ministry of Internal
Affairs and the Division for
Youth of the abolished Ministry
of Youth Sports and Cultural
Affairs to form the existing
Ministry of Women,
Community and Social
Development (MWCSD)
The Department of Women not only national women’s
machinery but secretariat to different committees.
The Women’s Directorate is the only body in Government
mandated to ensure women’s development and well being.
New Zealand has a central, stand-alone, Ministry of
Women’s Affairs (MWA), focused primarily on policy
advice to the Minister of Women’s Affairs.
Ministry of Women, Community and Social
Development (MWCSD) as the national focal point for
CEDAW to mobilize its NGO and government partners to
realize the work on CEDAW and to promote CEDAW in
line with their respective focuses as organizations.
The Women in Development Division is the national
women’s machinery which is responsible for implementing
the National Women’s Policy.
National Mechanisms- Women’s Development Division,
Solomon Islands National Council of Women and
Solomon Islands Christian Association Federation of
Women (SICAFOW) which maintains its links with Vois
Blong Mere Solomons, the Christian Care Center and other
Church women organizations to promote and implement
Solomon Islands
5
Beijing+15 / Current
2006-2009
Includes only those countries with responses to the BPA+15 Questionnaire-2009
80
gender related activities.
Women’s Affairs under the Ministry of Education Women’s
Affairs and Culture
National Advisory Committee on Gender and
Development, a multi sectoral committee comprising of
Government and NGO representatives.
The Department of Women under the Ministry of Home
Affairs is the lead entity that responsible for the coordination
of gender equality in Tuvalu. Its act as an advisory to
Government on Gender and also promote gender equality
into the development processes of Government.
Tonga
Tuvalu
MATRIX 2. National Women’s Machineries and other Mechanisms for the Empowerment and Advancement of Women
Country
National
Machinery/structure
Mandate
Afghanistan
Ministry of Women’s Affairs
(MoWA) –headed by a Minister
who reports directly to the
President and is a member of the
Cabinet. The Minister is supported
by a deputy minister for technical
concerns and another for
administrative and financial
matters.
Under the Executive: Ministry of
Women’s Affairs;
Gender units/focal points; Interministerial Committee on Gender
Equality
Legislative: Women’s Committee
Judiciary/Executive:Interministerial Commission on the
Elimination of VAW
Lead institution tasked
to coordinate
Government efforts to
advance the role of
women in all spheres
of social life;
Ministry of Women’s
Affairs – mandated to
promote the
mainstreaming of
gender in policies and
lead the Government
in promoting the
advancement of
women through the
implementation of
policy commitments
at the national and
subnational levels; it
has a central office
with 34 subnational
branches, headed by a
Minister and is
reporting directly to
the President.
Other Mechanisms /Committees /Location in
State/Roles and functions
Gender units/focal points – mandated to serve as
mechanism of their respective ministries/ agencies on
women and gender concerns. Their location in their
respective offices varies as well as their structure. They do
not have appropriations of their own and in terms of
technical resources, they are seriously lacking.
Advisory Group on Gender (AGG) - a multi-donor
coordination mechanism, providing policy advice and donor
support to key processes such as the national budget, and the
Constitutional Loya Jirga. MOWA acts as secretariat
Inter-ministerial Working Group on Gender and
Statistics (IWGGS).
Women's Rights Department to focus on female-specific
issues under the Afghan Independent Human Rights
Commission
Gender and Law Working Group, the task force on
CEDAW implementation
Department of Women Affairs, provincial level structures
responsible for promoting women’s empowerment
throughout the country
Inter-ministerial Committee on Gender Equality –one of
the inter-ministerial committees of the Government whose
mandate is to coordinate and lead the implementation of the
national strategy’s gender strategy. It has no budget of its
own and receives technical support from UNIFEM and
other international agencies.
Inter-ministerial Commission on the Elimination of
VAW –created by a Presidential Decree, being further
legalized under the proposed anti VAW law. It is
composed of 15 government agencies whose main mandate
is to implement measures to eliminate VAW. Its secretariat
is the Ministry of Women’s Affairs. It receives technical
81
Other agencies / groups with crucial roles in
promoting gender equality
MOWA collaborates with the NGO Coordination Council (NCC)
committed to the advancement of women; composed of 3 of the
biggest NGO coalitions:
- the Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief (ACBAR);
- the Afghan Women’s Network (AWN), and;
- the Afghan NGO Coordination Bureau.
The MOWA is the Afghanistan National Development Strategy
(ANDS) Secretariat which is composed of senior officials from
MOWA and 7 international agencies serving as advisers; main
function is to serve as the technical arm of MOWA in fulfilling its
responsibilities to mainstream gender within the Consultative Group
processes of the ANDS
Country
National
Machinery/structure
American
Samoa
Department of Youth and Women's
Affairs (1997)
Australia
Minister for the Status of Women
Office for Women (OfW)–
supports Minister for the Status of
Mandate
Office for Women
- to influence policy,
Cabinet and Budget
Other Mechanisms /Committees /Location in
State/Roles and functions
Other agencies / groups with crucial roles in
promoting gender equality
assistance from UNIFEM but has no budget of its own.
- Establish goals and objectives relating to youth and
women in the Territory.
- Create policies and coordinate public programmes
addressing youth and women services and developments to
include, but not limited to, youth and women programme
planning goals, objectives, activities, projects, procedures
and evaluation, articulation, and planning and budgeting.
- Conduct studies on the needs of youth and women in the
Territory through research carried out by government
agencies responsible for providing services on health,
education, social welfare, employment, and related services.
The Department may develop pilot programmes when no
other public or private agency is able to develop such
programmes to fill a particular gap or critical need area,
thereby reducing unnecessary duplication and procuring
cost efficiency among programmes.
- Review legislation pertaining to youth and women
appropriations made for services in their behalf in such
fields as health, human and social service, education,
recreation, and juvenile delinquency and its prevention.
Consider and present revisions and additions needed and
report to the Governor and to the legislature regarding such
legislation.
- Evaluate the availability, adequacy, and accessibility of all
services for youth and women within the Territory.
- Conduct selected monitoring and promote the
coordination of the operations and operating policies
affecting youth and women of all departments and agencies
responsible for providing services for them and report such
facts and the offices recommendations to the legislature.
- Maintain a data and information storage and retrieval
system with respect to youth and women related
information and maintain contacts with local, state, and
federal officials and agencies concerned with planning for
youth and women.
- Encourage and foster local community action on behalf of
the youth and women through local committee
establishments.
- Work closely with local, national, regional, and
international Non Government Organizations (NG0s) in
promoting programmes addressing both youth and women
issues.
- Conduct educational workshops and seminars.
- Formulate national policies on development and
protection of youth and women Assist to coordinate
activities with other NG0s for youth and women.
Office for Women is the lead Government entity on gender
issues and equality. It coordinates with State and Territory
Governments and provides secretariat services to the main
Women’s Services Network (WESNET) and the National
Association of Services Against Sexual Violence (NASASV) –
domestic violence and sexual assault service providers
82
Country
Bangladesh
National
Machinery/structure
Mandate
Other Mechanisms /Committees /Location in
State/Roles and functions
Other agencies / groups with crucial roles in
promoting gender equality
Women; advisory body to Govt. 0n
policies & programs for women; is
part of the Department of Families,
Housing, Community Services and
Indigenous Affairs (FaHCSIA).
New South Wales: Office for
Women, in the Department of
Premier and Cabinet
• Victoria: Office of Women’s
Policy, in the Department of
Planning and Community
Development
• Queensland: Office for Women,
in the Department of Child Safety
• South Australia: Office for
Women, in the Attorney-General’s
Department
• Western Australia: Office for
Women’s Policy, in the
Department for Communities
• Tasmania: Women Tasmania, in
the Department of Premier and
Cabinet
• Northern Territory: Office of
Women’s Policy, in the
Department of the Chief Minister
• Australian Capital Territory:
Office for Women, in the
Department of Disability, Housing
and
Community Services.
decision-making to
ensure women’s
interests are
considered.
(Source: Government
Support for Women,
http://www.wbww.co
m.au/links.htm)
formal means of coordination among the national
mechanisms for gender equality across jurisdictions. The
Office for Women provides secretariat services for:
Commonwealth, State, Territory and New Zealand
Ministers' Conference on the Status of Women
(MINCO).
Women’s Advisors Meeting (WAM).
National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Women’s Gathering (NATSIWG).
Commonwealth, State, Territory and New Zealand Ministers'
Conference on the Status of Women (MINCO)- Every year
Minister’s for the Status of Women from Federal, State, Territory and
New Zealand governments meet to discuss issues which affect the
status of women in their jurisdictions.
Women's Advisers Meeting (WAM)
The Standing Committee of Commonwealth and State Women's
Advisers (Women's Advisers Meeting or WAM) is a consultative
forum for strategic discussion, exchange of information and coordination of Commonwealth and State activities pertaining to
women.
National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women’s
Gathering (NATSIWG)an important voice for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island women
of Australia.
Ministry of Women and Children
Affairs (MoWCA)
To act as the central
motivating factor on
issues of women’s
equality and
development and to
promote a broader and
more consistent
response by all
Office of Work and Family in the Department of the
Prime Minister and Cabinet –oversees the new directions
for child care and early childhood education; working with
the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace
Relations to make sure workplace relations reforms take
account of work and family issues;
Women’s Interdepartmental Committee (IDC) - provide
policy co-ordination across Government to improve gender
equality.
Sex Discrimination Commissioner (SDC) under the
Australian Human rights Commission to hear about the
experiences of Australian men and women in relation to sex
discrimination and sexual harassment.
National Council to Reduce Violence against Women
and their Children with 11 members as an advisory body
to the government & tasked to develop a National Plan
based on research and an extensive program of consultation
with survivors,
National Women’s Alliances (NWA) made up of more
than 70 women’s organizations considered as a natl.
mechanism which the Government engages & consults to
ensure women’s voices are heard
Australian Human Rights Commission has statutory
responsibility for promoting gender equality
Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace
Agency is a statutory authority located within the
Australian Government’s Families, Housing, Community
Services and Indigenous Affairs portfolio.
The Australian Social Inclusion Board and the
Community Response Task Force have been established
to involve the community and business sectors at the
highest level and reports to the Minister of Social Inclusion.
Ministry of Women and Children Affairs (MOWCA)
has three implementing agencies: Department of Women
Affairs (DWA)-implement different programmes in 64
districts and 396 Upazilas (sub-districts) for empowering
women at the grass root level. Jatiya Mohila Sangstha
(JMS) also known as National Women Organization started
function in 1976 with the aim of improving the socioeconomic status of women in the society in all the 64
83
Ministry of Women and Children Affairs and its implementing
agencies: National Council for Women Development, Women
Development Implementation and Evaluation Committee, Upazila
and District WID Coordination Committee.
Country
Bhutan
Brunei
Darussalam
National
Machinery/structure
The National Commission for
Women and Children
National Commission for Women
and Children (NCWC)- with
members from:
National Assembly
NGOs
Private Sector
Media
Academia/
Academic Institutions
Royal Bhutan Police
Office of Legal Affairs
Min. of labor & Human
Resources
Min. of Education
Min. of Health
Civil Society
Dept. of Community
Development
under the Min. of Culture, Youth
and Sports
Mandate
Other Mechanisms /Committees /Location in
State/Roles and functions
government agencies
to the needs and
priorities of women
districts and Bangladesh Shishu Academy (BSA) –agency
for children
Parliamentary Standing Committee for Women headed
by a member of the Parliament.
WID Focal Pts – Planning Commission WID FP – 96
member network coordinated by the MoWCA
WID Co-ordination Committee to ensure coordination
between policy and implementation
National Council for Women Development has 448
members, including the Prime Minister (chairperson) tasked
to implement and review socioeconomic development
policies to reduce existing gender gaps, and enhance
women's status.
Women’s Development Implementation and Evaluation
Committee to monitor implementation of the National
Action Plan by different sectors.
- National Gender Focal Points (network in line
Ministries)
- Committee on Women & Children in the National
Assembly
- Committee on Social and Cultural Affairs in the
National Council mandated to initiate and review
legislation related to social and cultural affairs;
- Complaints & Response Mechanisms (CRC) / Royal
Bhutan Police provide quick responses to assist women &
children victim
- Women & Child Protection Unit (WCPU) (Royal
Bhutan Police looks after protection issues and women
offenders
- approved by Order
No. COM/03/04/487,
Jan. 29, 2004
Upgraded to
Commission by new
Government
(autonomous 2008)
(NCWC) is the
national mechanism
for coordinating and
monitoring activities
related to women and
child rights, and
reporting to treaty
bodies.
Before the
establishment of the
NCWC, a CRC
Taskforce was
established through a
special government
order in 2004 to look
after matters not only
relating to children,
but also women’s
rights and issues.
-Coordinate
programmes and
activities pertaining to
women Affairs
Functions:
- Provide protection,
counselling and
advice to women and
Special Committee on Women and Family Issues
(SCWFI) under the National Council, headed by the
Minister responsible for women issues. Tasks include to
formulate policies, draw up the National Plan of Action on
Women’s issues and ensure its implementation in all areas
Women’s Council of Brunei Darussalam – NGO
representing 14 women associations affiliated under it. The
Women’s Council main objective is to improve the status of
84
Other agencies / groups with crucial roles in
promoting gender equality
Gross National Happiness Commission endorsed by the RGoB as the
custodian of the National Plan of Action for Gender (NPAG)
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
(SAARC) Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in
Women and Children for Prostitution
-collects data on gender
Brunei Women Business Council was established in 2000
specifically to oversee the economic activities and promote the
business development of our women.
Country
National
Machinery/structure
Mandate
Other Mechanisms /Committees /Location in
State/Roles and functions
women in all areas especially in education, economy,
welfare, culture and society.
Cambodia
Ministry of Women Affairs
(MoWA)
Cambodian National Council for
Women (CNCW) also has a
monitoring role
girls victimized by
marital, sexual and
drug abuse and other
social ills;
- Provide welfare
benefits, emergency
relief, educational
guidance, training and
temporary shelter to
women who are
destitute, elderly,
widowed, divorced,
disabled or victims of
natural disaster or
misfortune.
- organize and
implement selfreliant/entrepreneurial
programmes to help
women become
economicallyindependent
- monitor the activities
of women’s
associations in the
country to
ensure that they are in
line with national
development
objectives
MoWA – to
coordinate gender
policy development
and monitor and
report its progress
China
National Working Committee on
Women and Children (NWCWC)
under the State Council
Founded Feb. 22, 1990
Working Committee for Women
and Children, a national body to
promote women’s development and
NWCWC coordinating agency
under the State
Council in charge of
the work of women
and children
Basic functions of
Gender Mainstreaming Action Groups (GMAGs) as
support to gender focal points in line ministries. In 2007,
GMAGs had been established in 21 of 26 line ministries
plus the Council of Ministers and the State Secretariat for
Civil Service, and Gender Mainstreaming Action Plans
(GMAPs) have been prepared and adopted by 9 ministries.
TWG on Gender (TWG-G) within the framework of the
Government donor Consultative Committee (GDCC) to
promote a more streamlined approach to both sector level
planning and implementation
National Committee on the Promotion of Social
Morality, Women and Family Values – to combat against
all forms of VAWC (CEDAW Statement 2008)
Four-level Network
1). NWCWC has 33 members composed of 28
government ministries/ departments and 5 NGOs, of which
the All-China Women`s Federation is the largest women`s
organization in China. All the council members are at
ministerial level from the member units, and meanwhile a
liaison person is appointed to be in charge of the routine
85
Other agencies / groups with crucial roles in
promoting gender equality
MoWA has formerly been Women’s Association to support grassroot women as an implementing organization.(JICA)
MoWA operates 11 Women Development Centres (WDC)
operating in ten provinces/
municipalities and aim at providing direct service delivery to women
in order to improve their economic status.
All China Women’s Federation (ACWF) is a member of the
NWCWC
NGOs:
All-China Women’s Federation, Committee on Women of the
All-China Federation of Trade Unions, and Association of
Women Entrepreneurs of China: Participate in national legislation
and law enforcement supervision, promote development and
Country
Cook Islands
National
Machinery/structure
Mandate
Other Mechanisms /Committees /Location in
State/Roles and functions
Other agencies / groups with crucial roles in
promoting gender equality
protect women’s rights and
interests and gender equality
NWCCW: are to
organize, coordinate,
guide, supervise and
facilitate the relevant
government
departments to carry
out various activities
effectively to
safeguard the rights
and interests of the
children and women,
develop and
implement the
Program for the
Development of
Women and Children,
provide necessary
human, material and
financial support for
efforts to promote the
rights and interests of
women and children
and the development
of women and
children, guide,
supervise and inspect
the work of all the
Women and Children
Working Committees
and offices at the level
of the provincial,
autonomous region
and municipal levels.
(China’s Response to
BPA+15 Qs, 2009)
work
2). NWCWC has offices in 31 provinces (autonomous
regions and municipalities),
3). 385 prefectures (cities), and over 2000 counties,
4). the local government has established its working
committee on women and children, with its special office
and full-time staff, thus forming a 4 - level network linking
the government agencies and mass organizations.
- Office for Workers, Youth and Women under the
Standing Committee of National People’s Congress:
* receives & studies reports on development of women
& children,
* accepts proposals on protection of women & children,
* investigates implementation of relevant laws
- Working Group of Women and Children under the
National Committee of CPPCC
-National Joint Committee for Protecting Women and
Children’s Legal Rights (NJCPWCLR) : strengthens
interdepartmental coordination & cooperation
improvement of laws and regulations on the protection of women’s
rights and interests, assist the government in handling major cases
involving violations of women’s rights and interests, and carry out
campaigns to raise awareness and capacity of women to protect their
rights in accordance with the law. (China’s Response to BPA+15 Qs,
2009)
Women Development Officers at Outer Islands level ;
work on full or part time basis with Island Women Council;
- are the focal points for information on issues of concern
on women and ensure progress of women & develop
annual work programs
Cook Islands National Council of Women - MOU with
Ministry of Internal Affairs with missions goals of :
eliminating all forms of discrimination against women in
line with the CEDAW convention; advocating for women’s
issues and promoting gender awareness, planning and
analysis in order to support ongoing efforts to improve the
status of women.
Working Group comprised of the Head of Ministries and
Agencies from: Crown law Office, Ministry of Education,
Health,Justice, Internal Affairs, Office of the Prime
Island Women Council
Punanga Tauturu -MOU with the Police Department to address
violence against women.
Gender and Development
Division under the Ministry of
Internal Affairs
2 Staff : Gender Sr.
Program/Research Officer &
Director
86
.
Country
National
Machinery/structure
Democratic
People’s
Republic of
Korea
The National Coordination
Committee for the
Implementation of the CEDAW
(NCCIC)
Fiji Islands
Department of Women under the
Ministry for Women, Culture
and Social Welfare
Hong Kong,
China
India
Women’s Commission (WoC)
established in January 2001 is a
high-level central mechanism,
appointed by the Chief Executive
to advise the government on
women’s issues and to champion
women’s interests.
Ministry of Women and Child
Development- nodal department
in the Government of India to look
after advancement of women and
children
(Jan. 30, 2006)
Mandate
To monitor and
harmonize the
national human rights
system with
international standards
and to fulfill the
reporting obligation.
Mandate -responsible
for providing policy
advice on women’s
and gender concerns
Role - catalyst in
promoting the
implementation of the
Women’s Plan of
Action and
international
commitments.
- To promote the wellbeing and interests of
women in Hong Kong
The WoC is tasked to
take a strategic
overview on women’s
issues; develop a longterm vision and
strategy for the
development and
advancement of
women; advise the
government on
women policies and
initiatives , and assist
the government in
implementing the
CEDAW and other
international
instruments related to
women.
The National
Commission for
Women - mandate of
protecting and
promoting the
interests of women;
Other Mechanisms /Committees /Location in
State/Roles and functions
Minister, Office of the Minister of Islands Administration
(OMIA), and the Department of Police - to monitor the
CEDAW Law Reform Programme (Response to BPA+15
2009
(NCC) - consisting of the officials of the Presidium of the
Supreme People’s Assembly, the Cabinet, such ministries
concerned as the Ministry of Labour, the Ministry of
Education, the Ministry of the Public Health and the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Central Court, the
Central Public Prosecutors Office and other organs.
Other agencies / groups with crucial roles in
promoting gender equality
Korean Democratic Women’s Union
Department of Women (DOW)
Human Rights Commission
The Equal Opportunity Commission - created by the Sex
Discrimination Ordinance to administer the law : to
eliminate discrimination and to promote equal opportunities
Four Working Groups
- Working Group on Enabling Environment
- Working Group on Public Education
- Working Group on Empowerment
- Working Group on Collaboration
Gender Focal Points (2003) in all bureaus and departments
as resource persons and liaison points for their respective
organizations
Gender Focal Point Network in District Councils (2008)
- State Departments of Women and Child Development,
State Commissions for Women and State Social Welfare
Boards form part of the institutional system. in most of the
states.
- Women’s Development Corporations (WDCs) have
been set up in most of the states to help the government
87
National Alliance of Women (NAWO)- mandate: policy
intervention’ to engender national level planning (India Shadow
Report 2006)
- Commissions and Committees are set up from time to time to focus
on specific areas. A focal point on the human rights of women has
been set up in the NHRC.
Country
I
ran (
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Machinery/structure
Mandate
The National Commission for
Women.
established by an Act
of Parliament in 1992;
acts as a statutory
ombudsperson for
women
Center for Women and Family
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implement the programme.
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Development assists the Department in the areas of training
and research. Objectives of the Institute include the
development and promotion of voluntary action in social
development.
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88
Other agencies / groups with crucial roles in
promoting gender equality
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Center for Women Studies
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Solomon Islands National
Council of Women
Solomon Islands Christian
Association Federation of
Women
(SICAFLOW)
n
a
t
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on
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l
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h
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y
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i
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sf
o
rwome
n
i
nSol
omonI
s
l
a
n
ds
.
Sri Lanka
Ministry of Child Development
and Women’s Empowerment and
Statutory Institutions
Na
t
i
o
n
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l
Co
mmi
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onWo
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eNCW
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c
c
ompl
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ou
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rp
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sr
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nga
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oc
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.
Thailand
Office of Women’s Affairs and
Family Development (OWAFD),
d
e
p
a
r
t
me
n
t
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ll
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lu
n
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pa
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e
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on
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t
sofs
i
xma
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l
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ec
h
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r
c
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o
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Vois Blong Mere Solomons:l
oc
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g
a
n
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z
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t
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o
n
;
n
a
t
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on
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h
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National Committee on Women-I
mp
l
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o
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p
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n
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sCh
a
r
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e
r
:
Gender Complaints Unit -e
s
t
a
b
l
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h
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dt
or
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r
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mi
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t
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o
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.
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tt
h
e
mi
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t
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r
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t
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r
t
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i
c
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e
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/d
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r
t
me
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s
;
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women’s issues,i
n
c
l
u
di
n
gUNI
FEM,UNDP,t
h
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;
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d
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women’s issues.
9
8
SI National Council of Women:Anu
mb
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l
awome
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r
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ks
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Office of the Council of National Security,
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1
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Other agencies / groups with crucial roles in
promoting gender equality
1
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