OCCASIONS ONLINE 2010 A Collection of Prize-Winning Works Produced by Students in

2010
OCCASIONS
ONLINE
A Collection of Prize-Winning Works Produced by Students in
the Program for Writing & Rhetoric
Edited by Dr. Nancy Mann
University of Colorado Boulder
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Lower-Division Prize Winners
Sara Falk-Mann, Analysis Category
“Dove Devolution”..............................................................................................................................
1
Kelsey Lindsey, Argument Category
“Harry Potter and Christianity: Treacherous Duo or Surprising Partners?”...........................................
8
Amanda Lubeck, Analysis Category 2nd
“Teen Pregnancy in Hollywood: Nine Months of Deception”...............................................................
20
Mariana Rodriguez, Personal Narrative Category
“Blonde is a Primary Color”................................................................................................................
28
Samantha Wellington, Inquiry Category
“Deinstitutionalization and the Current State of Mental Health Care”...................................................
32
Upper-Division Prize Winners
Peter Bowlin, Mackison Prize
“Computer Engineering Major”..........................................................................................................
38
Tyler Dodge, Business Writing Prize
“A New GM: How to Sell Cars Again”................................................................................................
58
Brian Sheldon, Upper-Division Arts & Sciences Prize
“The Nature of Redemption and the Limits of Pessimism in King Lear”..............................................
68
Dove Devolution
Sara Falk-Mann
Although standards of beauty have been changing constantly with history and culture
from plate-sized African lip rings to robust and pale models of the Renaissance, recently the
beauty industry has developed a global ideal of thinness and abnormal model attractiveness.
Dove, on the other hand, has tried to change this superficial and unrealistic body image of
women into the celebration of “natural,” “real,” and “athletic” bodies. By campaigning for real
beauty Dove aims to help diminish “universal” standards of beauty and help women with poor
mental and physical images of themselves. But, even though recent Dove ads attempt to present
an end to all female standards of beauty by using the rhetoric of authenticity, in fact these ads
assimilate the typical standards of beauty that privilege whiteness, youth, and body size, while
placing guilt on other products and subordinating inner beauty to outer perfection.
The foundation of Dove’s false message through ads, commercials, and funds is “The
Real Truth about Beauty: A Global Report.” Although the report purports to be neutral, it uses
the authority of science to establish a universal obsession with beauty. By using the authority of
science and scientific terminologies such as “results,” “data,” “study,” and “report” Dove is
rhetorically making this universal obsession acceptable and seemingly educational. By traveling
to ten countries and speaking to thousands of women Dove intends to make its standard of
beauty outwardly universal (Fl ynn, Waterman, and Garrelts). However, the sample ignores
all other altering standards of beauty and other standards not linked to beauty at all. But because
of Dove’s company background and ownership women all around the world receive the
implication that the western standard of beauty is the universal standard. This can be defined as
ethnocentrism, the tendency to assume that one’s own culture of life represents the norm and/or
is superior to others (Benokraitis 50-52). It is not surprising only two percent of interviewees
in the report found themselves beautiful and nearly fifty percent of the girls found themselves
overweight comparing themselves with this standard (Fl ynn, Waterman, and Garrelts).
These women are experiencing culture shock and feeling disorientated, uncertain, out of place, or
even fearful when immersed in an unfamiliar culture (Benokraitis 50-52). Yet rather than
diminishing all standards of beauty worldwide, Dove’s interpretation of the global report is
actually reiterating these standards and cementing them into society.
Dove’s attack is on all physical levels: skin color (race), skin (youth), hair, and body size
(weight). According to Bad Subjects, “the primary models chosen for the ad campaign were six
‘average’ American women of varying body types and races who ranged in pant size from 4 to
12.” With the average pant size being 12 to 14, the average American woman is being ostracized
(Fl ynn, Waterman, and Garrelts). These ads are allegedly supposed to remind women how
healthy and beautiful they are in their own skin. However, these models don’t even represent the
average American woman and don’t promote a healthy lifestyle. Not only that, but these ads do
not stand on their own; there is always a product being sold or a logo being advertised. What
Dove is really trying to promote is that healthiness and confidence are achievable with the help
of Dove products, rather than promoting working out and eating right. It is a complete
contradiction to fix an internal self-esteem/physical issue with an external product.
In one Dove ad, one woman is pictured with sleek, smooth hair. In this specific ad the
“Campaign for Real Beauty” is trying to promote Frizz Control Therapy System with repairing
system, to get rid of unwanted frizz. This is an inconsistency with everything that Dove’s selfesteem fund and beauty campaign stand for, which is “building a positive self-esteem and body
image” (Dove). This ad and message disregard this statement completely by subtly letting
society know that frizzy haired girls aren’t included in Dove’s universal standards of beauty. Just
purchase Dove’s Frizz Control Therapy System, the ad seems to say, and the deformity of frizzy
hair will soon be taken care of. Dove is supposed to accept all women and their physical entities.
However, Dove is using beauty to profit rather than accepting physical differences.
In another ad, Dove shows six older women naked, revealing their bodies. This ad is
altered by using the rhetoric of authenticity with statements such as “beauty has no age limit,”
“too old to be in an anti-aging ad,” and “too many age spots to be in an anti-aging ad,” in bold
across the women (Dove). These are all great messages; however, at the corner of all these ads
Dove is selling anti-aging lotion, a direct contradiction. Dove is throwing all these inspirational
messages through advertisements with a paradox. Dove doesn’t really see old age as beautiful;
Dove sees old age as another product opportunity and moneymaker.
Along with the misinterpretation of hair and youth, these ads don’t represent diversity at
all. In the anti-aging ad, there are five white women and one black woman being represented.
This doesn’t embody the majorities or minorities of world population and society. According to
the World Diversity Patterns, 56.4% of the world population is Asian, 13.5% is African, 12.9%
is European, and 8.7% is Latin American, leaving the United States last at 5.1% of the world’s
population (O'Neil). It would be assumed that after doing a global study of ten different
countries around the world Dove would understand which people in the world need to be
represented. However, Dove’s ads are favoring the white race rather than embracing the rest of
the races that dominate the world. Dove makes this same mistake in a commercial, “True
Colors.” Throughout the commercial, thirteen girls are shown, while Dove lists flaws the girls
see about themselves. Out of these thirteen girls, ten are white, two are Asian, and one is black—
again, giving the world and market to which Dove sells its products and runs its advertisements
and commercials a false perception of beauty, that white girls and western beauty are superior.
Not only that, but other races such as Latin Americans aren’t even shown in the commercial.
Again this subtly reiterates to the public that there is always a standard of beauty and westernized
self-image. Even if Dove claims to be breaking through these standards and helping “all” women
of “all” shapes and sizes, Dove is creating its own standard of what’s beautiful while tricking
audiences to buy its products, helping them fall back into the current image/standard of beauty.
Along with the artificial presentation of beauty, Dove places guilt on other products for
their “sexy” ads and images. This can be represented in a commercial called “Under Pressure.”
In “Under Pressure,” a little girl is standing on the street with “provocative” images flashing
before her eyes, finally ending with a statement across the screen, “girls are under more pressure
than ever” (Dove). Yet again, such an encouraging message, but Dove’s ads are contributing to
this pressure. Its entire campaign for beauty and self-esteem is filled with images of the same
kind: nudity and sexual poses. Just because the women are older and have a larger body size
doesn’t make the message of these images any more constructive or less sexual in terms of selfesteem and body image. In “Onslaught,” a modification of “Under Pressure,” Dove shows the
same commercial, but with music and a different message at the end, “talk to your daughter
before the beauty industry does” (Dove). By using the rhetoric of family, Dove seemingly hits
another home run. However, throughout Dove’s campaigns and funds, as mentioned before,
Dove uses ads of nudity and provocation just as much as any other company, but using a higher
age group and larger body sizes. Therefore, the moms “warning” and “protecting” their
daughters about the beauty industry are the actual women being portrayed in the ads. These
women are the young girls’ sisters, mothers, and grandmothers. Dove is just creating and
furthering acceptability for all generations to be provocative and revealing. Therefore, by using
such a different age group these images are, in a sense, being pushed harder, because for young
girls, their role models are their families. According to the theory of agents of socialization, how
we learn culture and how society socializes us into society, family is considered to be the most
influential and important agent (Benokraitis 61-62). Given the new images Dove is sending
out, young girls are in more danger than ever to be influenced.
While Dove is promoting these “new” provocative images, it is also suggesting other
companies have given girls this inadequacy at the same time. In “Onslaught,” when all these
images are passing by the young girl’s face, it is clear that other companies in the beauty industry
are to blame for these false perceptions of beauty. However, Dove is just criticizing the beauty
industry to maximize its own profit because it is its own worst enemy. Unilever, which can be
considered the parent company of Dove, is the largest manufacturer of cosmetics, skin lighteners,
and diet products (Hanson). That is a complete negation in itself. The company that runs Dove
and is supposedly “widening their standard of beauty” clearly isn’t accepting women for who
they are and are at the same time is degrading them. Unilever owns other companies such as
Lynx and Axe (Hanson). In both companies’ advertisements and commercials, the degradation
of women is all too familiar. In a Lynx commercial for body spray, hundreds of unrealistically
beautiful women are all chasing after a man because he smells good thanks to Lynx deodorant,
and the commercial ends with the message of “Spray more. Get more.” In an Axe commercial
titled “Mix Them,” women are thrown into each other and “mixed” in order to become more
“sexy” and “voluptuous” for a man’s pleasure. These horrible, debasing messages are all coming
from the same company as Dove’s “Campaign for Real Beauty,” Unilever. It seems as though
Unilever has a different global vision for women’s image and aiming each gendered product to a
specific audience to maximize profit makes it clear they really don’t have a message at all. It is
time Dove should be talking to its own parent (Hanson).
Regardless of the images being presented by Dove, the messages give the wrong
perceptions. Through every ad, commercial, and picture Dove hasn’t stopped reminding us about
beauty. This isn’t healthy whatsoever. Dove is creating a magic act where we don’t see the
obsession of all ages furthering their obsession with beauty rather than being strong and
successful. Dove’s rhetoric is so lucrative that it is even more disturbing than any other ads from
other companies, making it even easier to forget what makes a person beautiful. Healthy people
don’t have to love everything about themselves to be healthy, and self-respect doesn’t demand
perfection (Lezama, Henry, and Dangelmaier 8-8). Judgment shouldn’t be put on a girl
who wants to get ready “just because,” and an anti-aging lotion and bar of soap will never give
anyone exceptional health (Lezama, Henry, and Dangelmaier 8-8). It is not a crime for
women to celebrate the bodies they have, because with celebration comes confidence for women
of all ages, helping them recognize that a product is not needed to fix body image. “Any active
woman can agree that the more you care about your body and the more active you stay, the more
your body begins to shift from rail-thin or chunky to developed and muscular”(Fl ynn,
Waterman, and Garrelts). Being muscular and healthy will always be “in,” and the reason
why so many women are unhappy is that companies like Dove are constantly trying to fix their
imperfections.
With a society so filled with false perceptions of beauty and happiness, the real goal
shouldn’t be to diminish standards that are largely present, but to promote awareness and healthy
lifestyles for young girls. Nike, too, has campaigned for “real” women in its ads. But, rather than
putting out an image to sell a product, its message is to create an active lifestyle and embrace the
body that has been developed out of it. If all companies could promote healthiness and activeness
while advertising a product, it would be a win-win situation for both the company and society.
There is a big difference between promoting natural beauty that can be fixed by a product and
promoting beauty that a woman has successfully created through exercise. There’s an even
bigger difference between promoting beauty in the first place and not promoting it at all.
Therefore, it’s time to follow Nike’s lead and replace unhealthy beauty obsessions with
athleticism and health. It’s time to take a stand that’s pro-woman rather than falling for these
subtle media images that present normal women as imperfect and needing to be fixed.
PWR Home
Harry Potter and Christianity: Treacherous Duo or
Surprising Partners?
Kelsey Lindsey
Introduction
I remember the first time I felt unwelcome in church. I was thirteen years old,
starting a new Bible study for middle school girls. In an effort to get to know each other,
all the girls in my group shared the usual little tidbits of information: our name, grade,
school, favorite color, and (game changer!) favorite book. It was my turn and, trying to
control the shake in my voice I would always get from public speaking, I shared what I
knew. Name: Kelsey Lindsey. Grade: Eighth. School: Moore Middle. Favorite Color:
Yellow. And, last but not least, Favorite Book: Harry Potter. I looked up after I shared
these vital pieces of information, only to find pursed lips and raised eyebrows greeting
me. Obviously I said something wrong. Panicking, I reviewed the past monologue in my
head, searching for the devious slip that caused such a ripple of shock in the circle. After
five seconds of very awkward brain racking, I narrowed the culprit down to two suspects:
either the group disagreed with my fondness for Harry Potter, or all ten girls had a
strange dislike towards the color yellow. As I was drawing to my conclusion, the small
blonde girl next to me leaned over and validated my hypothesis. In a hushed whisper that
seemed to reverberate around the circle, Sarah exclaimed, “You like Harry Potter? But
isn’t that like, all about witches and stuff?”
Since the first book’s release in 1999, the Harry Potter series written by Scottish
author J. K. Rowling has been disturbing the calm waters of Christianity, mainly because
of the central practice of magic found throughout the seven books. The series tells a tale
of a bespectacled orphan Harry Potter who, at the age of eleven, radically discovers that
he is no ordinary boy, but a wizard. Whisked away from his dreary life with his only
living relatives, the Dursleys, Harry is enrolled in the famous Hogwarts School of
Witchcraft and Wizardry, where he meets his best friends Ron and Hermione. With them,
Harry progresses through school and life’s challenges, always with the ominous threat of
his parents’ murderer, Lord Voldemort, gaining power and rising again. While the
inclusion of sorcery is troubling to some Christians, the humungous popularity of the
books is the main catalyst for the religious uprising against young Harry and his friends.
With more than 350 million copies worldwide (Hoover par 3), Harry Potter has been
published in more than fifty-four languages (Nexon and Neumann 3), making it
internationally known and loved. This success is unsettling to Christians, mainly
Christian parents, who think that the popularity of the book will provoke the curiosity of
their kids, luring them into reading the magical series.
But what is the driving force behind this alarm? As a Christian myself, I strive to
understand the fear that is involved in the banning of any source of literature, much less a
wonderful series that opens many doors in children’s learning and the development of the
imagination. Through an examination of the Bible, I do believe that I found the reason
behind the action of condemning Harry Potter, but through the same source, I have also
found evidence to support the reading of these novels. The main goal of this paper is not
to recruit you as Christian parents into the large fandom of Harry Potter, but to help you
explore the many different lessons found within the series. All I ask for is an open mind,
and maybe a little faith that these books could be used for good rather than bad, perhaps
even as a teaching tool to help your children understand the word of God.
Witchcraft, the Bible, and Today’s Modern Interpretation
What’s in a Word?
Let us first look at one of the most fundamental and inadvertently overlooked
discussion points in this argument: that is, the use of and negative connotation found
within the word “witch.” Throughout history and popular literature, witches have been
associated with evil, wrongdoing, and ill intentions. There are the witches of Macbeth,
countless evil witches of Disney fame, and of course, the infamous Salem Witch Trials of
1692. While all of these popular and well-known influences have subconsciously
implanted negative stereotypes within many people’s minds, the latter may be the most
important, as the blind hysteria found in these trials may be connected to Christians’
banning of Harry Potter. From June to September 1692, the town of Salem,
Massachusetts condemned thirteen women and six men to hanging on the charges of
witchcraft and fraternizing with the Devil, and imprisoned hundreds of others, which
created a town-wide hysteria (“The Dead” par. 1 and Linder par. 1). It is important to
notice that the majority found guilty in these trials were women, thus diminishing the
negative effects of the male equivalent to the witch in today’s society. Wizards are
looked at as wise and powerful, in the example of Merlin or Gandalf in The Lord of the
Rings. Because of this acceptance of magic in the word “wizard” and not “witch,” it may
be safe to say that some of the fear towards Harry Potter is subconsciously provoked by
the inclusion of the words “witch” and “witchcraft” within the novels. As this may be, I
will cease to use these marked words in this paper, as fighting the negative connotations
associated with both would be pointless, as they have already been embedded within all
of our minds from early childhood on through many sources. The tragedy at Salem is a
prime example of how this underlying discrimination towards the word “witch” has been
causing problems since long before Harry Potter.
Biblical Evidence
There are a plethora of Biblical quotes condemning sorcery, many of them used as
evidence in the case against Harry Potter. Notice the inclusion of the word “witchcraft”
within all three of these quotations, as it may as well strengthen the impact these phrases
have on readers. Deuteronomy 18:10 says, “Let no one be found among you who
sacrifices his son or daughter in the fire, who practices divination or sorcery, interprets
omens, [and] engages in witchcraft,” and found in 2 Chronicles 33:6 is “He...practiced
sorcery, divination and witchcraft, and consulted mediums and spiritists. He did much
evil in the eyes of the LORD, provoking him to anger.” With Galatians 5:20 linking
witchcraft with sins such as jealousy, anger, and discord, the Bible clearly states that he
who deals with magic is not welcome within the Christian community.
Modern Magic and Harry Potter
What may not be so clear is the exact definition as to what is truly witchcraft, and
what the practice of magic looks like. There is no description found within the Bible, but
many present day “witches,” or Wiccans, offer up an explanation as to what their religion
of Wicca is. On the website The Pagan Federation, Wicca (the religious name for the
study of witchcraft) is defined as a nature-based religion and craft, the purpose of which
is to put the practitioner at peace with the “cosmos” through the craft of psychic healing
(“What Is Wicca?” par 2). The main goal of the followers of this religion is to achieve a
“deep communion with the powers of Nature and of the human psyche, leading to a
spiritual transformation of the self” (par 1). Because this practice of magic is far from
similar to the waving of wands and brewing of potions in Harry Potter, it is surprising to
me that Christians find fault with the books, as they have no direct correlation to the
modern Wicca religion.
But find fault they do, and in the argument against Harry Potter, the greatest ally
might be found in the form of Laura Mallory, an anti–Harry Potter mother who first
found conflict with the series when she discovered that the books were being read in her
children’s classrooms. From then on, she has been one of the most active crusaders in the
fight to ban Harry Potter from the classroom, on the main basis that the book cleverly
disguises and promotes the use of witchcraft to young children. In an interview with the
Loganville Tribune posted on her website His Voice Today, Mallory provides several
examples of children trying to learn the practice of witchcraft as her main evidence
against the book belonging in classrooms. She states that the presence of the magical
series promotes the practice of the Wicca religion, and that this solicitation of religion is
fertile ground for the removal of the books (Swanepoel par. 19 and 22). Mallory
correlates the banning of the Harry Potter books with the same law that bans the Bible
from the classroom, in the effort to separate church from state.
While Mallory, as a Christian parent, might be easy for you to identify with, I
feel the need to bring up a vital flaw in her argument: she has never read a Harry Potter
book. This unfortunate action causes me to pause, because I do believe that if she had
taken the time to read the books, the countless number of hours and resources wasted on
her case to remove the series from classrooms would have been saved for better use. In
the books, magic is not performed for spiritual acts or evil rituals, instead it is used as we
might use technology: accomplishing everyday tasks and generally making life easier for
ourselves. As we use the dishwasher to accomplish our chores, spells are used to free the
characters of Harry Potter from the time spent in washing dishes. In the series, there is no
mention of praying or practicing to any sort of deity as Wiccans do, only instead useful
spells produced in achieving a simpler life. Even though I cannot relate to you as a
Christian parent, I can relate to you as a Christian, and I hope that you might take my
word over Mallory’s on the sole ground that I have actually read the books, and have
found that there is no harm in them.
And while I agree with the above Biblical quotes, and also Mallory when she
claims that practicing magic in the Wicca religion is ungodly, I believe that there is a
difference between the spiritual acts Wiccans perform and the harmless reading about
magic being practiced in a fictional reality. The Bible does not condemn the notion of
magic, or even the thought of it; instead it warns against the practical use of sorcery and
divination. In the argument that Harry will lead children to sorcery, the key evidence that
I have against this claim lies within the bookshelves of many Christians, maybe even
your own. In mysteries, thrillers, and romance novels, there are many central themes of
adultery, deception, and even murder; and while these three genres are read by Christians
such as my parents and me, I do not see any uncontrollable urges to kill and cheat rising
within any one of us. As none of these genres see any opposition equal to that against
Harry Potter, I believe that the Christian community does recognize the distinction
between fictional sins performed between the pages of books and acting them out in real
life. These differences are pivotal in the argument over Harry Potter’s morality, as is the
knowledge of the contrast between reading and doing.
The Other Dirty Harry?
While I hope that you understand the fact that it is not a sin to indulge in these
tales of magic, some other Christian scholars look past the spells and point out the
disturbing behavior that the protagonist Harry exhibits throughout the series. Catholic Ian
Rutherford states that because Harry and his friends “lie, cheat, [and] break rules and
laws” in the wizarding world (37), children reading the series will think that it is
acceptable to mimic his actions in everyday life. This rule-breaking is evident, and in his
book, The Wisdom of Harry Potter, Edmund M. Kern highlights the exact events that
may lead Rutherford to conclude that the boy wizard may be a bad influence on the
young susceptible minds of readers. In the third book, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of
Azkaban, Harry “sneaks off school grounds, wanders about after [school] hours, and lies
fairly often to everyone from Stan on the Knight Bus to Lupin in the classroom” (71).
Once you learn that Harry even goes as far as attacking a teacher, your intentions might
be in the right place when you ban your children from reading the Harry Potter books.
Though this argument is reasonable, the validation of it seems to disappear like
(dare I say it?) magic when it is understood that the key evidence in this justification is
found only when looking at these delinquencies with no outside knowledge as to why
they are being done. Sure, your children will see Harry and his friends acting out against
authority, but along with these unruly rebellions they will also discover the reasons
behind them. Harry sneaks off school grounds after hours to save an innocent animal
from wrongful death. In being dishonest and attacking his teacher, Harry does so for what
might be the noblest of reasons: to save the soul of a man who has done no wrong. While
the teacher being attacked is about to wrongly condemn this innocent man to the horrific
fate of living without a soul for purely selfish and vengeful reasons, Harry’s actions to
stop him can be atoned. I believe that when reading about these dishonorable actions in
context, your children will understand that the breaking of rules was necessary in Harry’s
selfless missions to help the innocent. For younger children who might blur the lines
between good intentions and bad deeds, I recommend you read the books with them,
explaining Harry’s and his friends’ actions and the good behind them. With this
clarification, it is safe to say that children should be able to recognize that while Harry
Potter may break the rules, it is for just and noble causes, and that makes all the
difference.
Stepping Stones to the Understanding of Brotherhood and Love
The last argument I have may be in fact the most controversial, but I believe it is
the most important. I have thought for quite some time now that the Harry Potter series
can be used as a tool to help teach children the fundamental values of the Christian
religion, most importantly the values of brotherhood and love. In this statement, I am
supported by ordained minister John Killinger, who in his book God, the Devil, and
Harry Potter defends the series, stating that the books are “a modern interpretation of the
gospel” (14). Because the Harry Potter series is so popular, I believe that examples from
one of their favorite books would help children understand some vital lessons and morals
taught in the Bible, furthering their knowledge of this wonderful story.
Brotherhood
The value of brotherhood is important in both Harry Potter and the Christian
religion. As all of us Christians are looked at as brothers and sisters in Christ, the love we
have for each other is a major defining characteristic of both ourselves and our religion.
John 13:35 states, “By this all people will know that you are my disciples, if you love one
another.” We Christians are simply asked to love our sisters and brothers of Christ,
supporting and encouraging them as Jesus himself would do. Children might be confused
as to why so much emphasis is placed upon the gift of being able to love one another, and
that is where the Harry Potter novels would help. Through examples from the friendship
of Harry, Ron, and Hermione, children may come to understand what true, unselfish
brotherly love looks like. In all seven books this famous threesome have truly been there
for each other by helping in times of need, giving advice on relationships, and even
pointing out where one is in the wrong. The love that they show through these actions is
important, as it is one of the only things that the evil contained within the novels is
deterred by. This is shown in the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix,
when Voldemort is successfully defeated in trying to possess Harry, all because he lacks
the understanding of the true power of love. In the attempt to occupy Harry’s body,
Voldemort is thwarted because he cannot bear to be contained within a vessel that holds
so much love for others. This extraction of evil is neatly summed up by wise Professor
Dumbledore when he says, “it was your heart that saved you” (Rowling 844). Harry’s
love for his friends sets him apart from the evil Voldemort, and ultimately saves him
from being overtaken by the wickedness trying to overcome him. This example should
help children understand that the love that they have for other Christians may be in fact
one of the most powerful things in the world, distinguishing them from others and
providing strength in a time of weakness.
Love
Christ’s love is the founding force for the Christian religion, centered around a
sacrifice so great and awesome it has inspired numerous works of literature, art, and
praise. The Bible is full of passages describing the incomparable love God has for all of
us, from Romans 5:8, “But God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were
still sinners, Christ died for us,” to 1 John 3:16, “This is how we know what love is: Jesus
Christ laid down his life for us.” Both of these texts center around the key fact that Jesus
died on the cross for our sins, displaying the undying love God has for us: a love that I
believe can be found in the Harry Potter novels. Throughout the books, it is revealed that
Harry’s mother gave her life to try to spare her son from the evil Lord Voldemort, and
this love possessed the power to save him from the “Killing Curse” and destroy the
power of Voldemort. This “great love” is unknown to even the wisest in the novels,
unseen but relied upon to vanquish immorality in the wizarding world. This plot sounds
eerily familiar to the story of Christ, from the selfless sacrifice to the destruction of evil
and protection of the innocent. With this new age representation of Jesus’ sacrifice, you
can help your children understand the love of God, and perhaps spark some curiosity that
propels them to seek out more information about their Creator.
Conclusion
In the banning of the Harry Potter novels, I believe that you as Christian parents
are missing out on a huge teaching opportunity: an opportunity to use a well-loved and
popular book to excite children about reading, learning, and God. The blind prejudice
against the presence of magic found in the novels must be dropped, and I suggest one
simple act to help in this process: read the books. In them, if you are able to read further
than the casting of spells and brewing of potions, you will find an inspiring protagonist,
many allusions to Christ, and if nothing else, a wonderfully well written story. Sharing
these novels with your children will spark numerous conversations, ignite their
imagination, and perhaps even act as a catalyst into their discovery of God.
Works Cited
“The Dead.” Famous American Trials: Salem Witchcraft Trials of 1692. Web. 27 Nov.
2009.
<http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/ASAL_DE.HTM>.
Hoover, Bob. "Harry Potter a Classic? Successful? No Doubt. But Classic? Time Will
Tell." Post-Gazette.com. Pittsburgh Post Gazette 14 July 2007. Web. 29 Oct.
2009.
<http:// www.post-gazette.com/>.
Kern, Edmund M. The Wisdom of Harry Potter. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2003.
Killinger, John. God, the Devil, and Harry Potter: A Christian Minister's Defense of the
Beloved Novels. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2002.
Linder, Douglas O. "The Witchcraft Trials in Salem: A Commentary." Famous American
Trials: Salem Witchcraft Trials of 1692. Web. 27 Nov. 2009.
<http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/salem.htm>.
New International Version. Grand Rapids: Biblica. Biblegateway.com. The Zondervan
Corporation L.L.C. Web. 27 Nov. 2009. <www.biblegateway.com>.
Nexon, Daniel Ha, and Iver B. Neumann. Harry Potter and International Relations.
Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006. Print.
Rowling, J. K. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. New York: Scholastic, 2003.
Rutherford, Ian. "Harry Potter: Situation Ethics Candy-coated for Kids." New Oxford
Review 69.4 (2002): 36-39. Academic Search Premier, Norlin Library, University
of Colorado, 28 Sept. 2009 <http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu>.
Swanepoel, Sharon. "Harry’s Harshest Critic Speaks Out." Loganville Tribune 29 June
2007. Rpt. in His Voice Today. Web. 19 Jan. 2010. <www.hisvoicetoday.org>.
"What Is Wicca?" The Pagan Federation. The Pagan Federation. Web. 27 Nov. 2009.
<http://www.paganfed.org/pagan-wicca.shtml>.
PWR Home
Teen Pregnancy in Hollywood: Nine Months of Deception
Amanda Lubeck
In the summer of 2008, rumors began surfacing about a group of young girls attending
Gloucester High School in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Going into summer break that year, an
astonishing 18 girls were pregnant (Kingsbury). As more and more of these girls were
interviewed by newspapers across the country, the adolescents eventually admitted to making a
pact with each other to become pregnant at the same time so that they could all raise their
children together. School officials and parents alike were shocked to discover that these young
women willingly became pregnant, but Amanda Ireland, a Gloucester student who gave birth her
freshman year, was not. She explained to Time magazine that before she gave birth the girls who
had created this pact frequently approached her at school to tell her how lucky she was that she
was going to have someone who would love her unconditionally (Kingsbury). This statement
sent shock waves throughout the nation. Many found it absurd that girls as young as fourteen
would feel the need to have a child, but both Kingsbury from Time and Allen-Mills from
TimesOnline in the United Kingdom suggest that Hollywood is a probable cause. Movies and
television shows such as Juno glamorize teen pregnancy by portraying the soon-to-be teen
mothers with desirable characteristics such as recognition among their peers, resolution of many
of their previous emotional problems, and a newfound sense of maturity. Pregnancy in
Hollywood can be seen as a coming-of-age event, which turns the characters in these films and
shows into role models for young girls all over America.
The 2007 film Juno follows 16-year-old Juno MacGuff, played by Ellen Page, through
her pregnancy. Although Juno is forced to face hardships such as debating the option of abortion,
telling her father and stepmother about the “blessed miracle,” and eventually giving her baby up
for adoption, the bulk of the film consists of jokes and comical scenes in order to illustrate Juno
as a strong and optimistic individual. Even during one of the most serious scenes, Juno cracks
jokes about abortion, causing Juno to appear absolutely assenting about her decision to abort her
unborn child. Upon making the appointment, she tells the receptionist that she’s “calling to
procure a hasty abortion” and asks if she can hold because her hamburger phone is “kind of
awkward to talk on” (Juno). However, when Juno goes to the abortion clinic, she cannot force
herself to go with the procedure because she discovers that her baby “already has a beating heart
and fingernails”; the film glamorizes pregnancy by suggesting that the fetus already has an
absolute value of life that Juno is responsible for protecting. Many teen girls would see this as a
positive aspect of pregnancy and would be proud of Juno for making such a decision. Juno’s
decision to save the life of her unborn child allows Juno to become something of a hero.
Although Juno does appear very sure of her decision when she is making jokes about
abortion, she eventually decides to give her baby up for adoption, causing adoption to seem like
an easy solution for pregnant teens. Since fewer than 1% of pregnant teens decide to take the
path of adoption, however (Back), the fact that the filmmakers fictionalize the simplicity of the
decision further implies the film’s unconscious support for teen pregnancy. After easily deciding
the fate of her unborn child, Juno explains herself by saying that she could “give [her baby] to
someone who totally needs it like a woman with a bum ovary or a couple of nice Lesbos” (Juno).
Even while she is making this tough decision, Juno’s hilarity shows her strength while under
pressure, which causes young girls not only to begin to subconsciously see her as someone they
would like to be like one day, but also to believe that giving a baby up for adoption is an easy
feat. Juno’s humor, although it could be seen as psychological compensation for her emotional
turmoil, serves as a tool to show her tenacity, which shines even while she is facing potential
havoc. Because Juno’s humor is so obvious throughout the film, teens see that Juno is still a
strong-willed and likeable individual, all the more so because she is pregnant at such a young
age.
Just as Juno’s decision to give her baby away is simple, the rest of her pregnancy and the
other choices she must make for her child continue to be filled with few complications, which
subconsciously shows young girls that pregnancy as a whole is an uncomplicated event. In fact,
even the seemingly impossible task of telling her family that she is pregnant is rather simple.
When Juno decides to inform her father and stepmother that she is pregnant, they seem surprised
at first but, shockingly, do not react with much anger or disappointment. Furthermore, her
stepmother even responds with unrealistic excitement about the situation, calling Juno “a little
Viking” (Juno) for her insistence on having the child, and offering to schedule her prenatal
appointments for her. Juno’s parents’ approval is nonchalant, and seems to offer the idea that
something like this would eventually happen to Juno anyway because all teenagers make
mistakes. This acceptance, unfortunately, may give teens the wrong idea about pregnancy.
Because Juno’s parents react with such approval, teens may transpose this into their own ideas
about pregnancy. Young girls most likely see this event and assume that pregnancy is as easy as
it appears in the film. It is not shocking that teenagers would wish for the nine months of
excitement that Juno experiences.
Not only is Juno’s pregnancy relatively simple, but it also seems to resolve many
problems in her life, making her existence less complicated and happier. Though many would
believe that teen pregnancy would rip apart a family, it actually brings Juno’s closer together,
which turns this complex situation into a beneficial one. After Juno discovers that Mark, the
baby’s prospective adoptive father, was planning to leave Vanessa, Juno asks her dad if it is
possible for two people to stay in love forever. Juno’s dad responds by telling her that he will
always love her, a sentimental family moment which has not yet been seen in the film. The
analogy of parental love as synonymous with romantic love is both disturbing and inaccurate, but
it does show the filmmaker’s subconscious support for teen mothers by depicting parental love as
everlasting, even through an event as overwhelming as teen pregnancy. Juno’s pregnancy forces
her to examine the meaning of relationships, and she discovers that, no matter what, her family
will always be there for her. When Juno becomes pregnant she also realizes that she must face
the emotional complications that she feels for the baby’s father, Paulie Bleeker. It seems that
Juno’s insecurities have caused her and Paulie to remain only friends, even though both secretly
wish to be together, until she becomes pregnant. Though both Paulie and Juno agree that they
should not date while she is pregnant, the pregnancy gives them a reason to discuss their
relationship. At the end of the film, Juno tells Paulie, “You’re not like everyone else. You don’t
stare at my stomach all the time, you look at my face. And every time I see you the baby starts
kicking super hard. I think it’s because my heart starts pounding every time I see you” (Juno),
which begins their fairytale relationship. Juno’s baby takes her and Paulie from awkward to
happily ever after, confirming that pregnancy makes permanent adolescent high school
relationships.
Juno’s pregnancy resolves not only her own personal issues, but also Vanessa Loring’s.
When Juno is looking for prospective adoptive parents, she sees Mark and Vanessa Loring’s
photograph in the penny-saver and states, “They were even perfect in black-and-white” (Juno)
because in their photograph they are both aesthetically beautiful and appear to be very much in
love. Although Juno believes that she has found her baby a perfect set of parents just by seeing
their picture, the complications of adoption soon cause Juno to discover that no one is perfect.
After she becomes very close with Mark, he discloses to Juno that he is planning to leave
Vanessa. Mark eventually does separate from Vanessa, and though it seems like her world is
falling around her, she still decides to adopt Juno’s baby. Though afraid to be a new mother,
Vanessa becomes happier than she ever was while with Mark. At the end of the film the audience
sees Vanessa happily smiling and holding her new baby, and although filmmakers ignore crucial
matters such as the financial responsibilities of being a single mother, Juno’s child has helped
Vanessa discover Mark’s inability to love and provided Vanessa with someone whom she can
love unconditionally who will also love her. Because Vanessa’s problems are solved when she
adopts Juno’s baby, teens who see this film are likely to believe that babies born to teenagers
have the potential to solve many adults’ problems, even though this is unrealistic.
While Juno’s pregnancy does resolve the problems in both Juno’s and Vanessa’s lives,
filmmakers seem to make the attention that Juno receives from being pregnant even more
important. During one of the first scenes in the film, Juno walks down the hall and must push
past her classmates, who seem to treat her as if she were invisible. After she develops a large
baby-bump, however, her classmates make an aisle for her to walk through on her way to class.
Though this change is most likely negative because some of the individuals in the hall give her
dirty looks, it is still a change. Juno has gone from being completely unknown at her high school
to being a sort of celebrity. This, of course, is a desirable change for many teen girls who are
struggling to make a name for themselves. While seeing Vanessa at the mall one day, Juno even
tells her that “At school everyone’s just grabbing my belly all the time…I’m a legend” (Juno).
When most people think of the word “legend,” they associate it with some sort of mythical
provenance and more importantly, fame. Although many would agree that teen pregnancy does
not necessarily amount to a great deal of positive attention, many young girls may not be able to
make this distinction, like Juno. To some, attention may be positive no matter how it has been
gained because, for many teens, attention is the equivalent to esteem. When Juno becomes
pregnant she also seems to earn some admiration from her classmates. While in the lunch line,
Juno’s best friend Leah remarks, “I wish my fun bags would get bigger” (Juno), alluding to
Juno’s increasing cup size. Leah, like many teen girls, chooses to focus on the positives of Juno’s
situation and fails to see the negatives and equates maternity with sexuality, which, once again,
causes Juno to become something to be envied by young girls.
When Juno becomes pregnant, she also gains a false sense of maturity. To begin, the
initial act is a privilege that is supposed to come with maturity. Juno jumps into sex seemingly on
a whim, surprising even Paulie. Juno later tells Paulie that the only reason that she had sex with
him was that she was bored, showing her immaturity in a situation that requires immense
maturity. However, young girls may see this act as something that automatically allows you to be
mature because it is something that adults do. Juno’s pseudo-maturity continues as she decides
what to do with her child. After Mark leaves Vanessa, Juno must confront the idea of giving her
child to a single mother. Though she does struggle with this dilemma, she confidently makes this
life-altering decision to give her baby to Vanessa because she feels that she is mature enough to
make such a choice for her child. Almost every young girl craves maturity as it causes one to feel
older than one actually is. One plausible cause of this desire is that many girls find their teen
years to be the most difficult. In the case of the Gloucester girls, school superintendent
Christopher Farmer stated that because there are so many broken families in Massachusetts,
“Many of [Gloucester’s] young people are growing up directionless” (Kingsbury). Growing up
in a dysfunctional home may cause teen girls to yearn to start a new home, and it is likely that
they feel that having a child will give them the maturity they need to do so.
Since its release in 2007, Juno has received 38 nominations and an astonishing 49
awards, including an Oscar for Best Writing. Its popularity was certainly the result of a
phenomenal screenplay, talented actors, upbeat underground music, and most importantly, a
provocative storyline. Despite all of the reasons for Juno’s success, the fact that the film is so
well liked should be disturbing to those who view the movie. The film portrays a young girl who
makes a huge mistake. Strangely enough, America fell in love with a pregnant teenager, even
though many of those who enjoyed the film would probably scoff at a teen in such a situation on
the street. The popularity of movies and shows such as Juno, Secret Life of the American
Teenager, Knocked Up, and 16 and Pregnant is caused by our intrinsic interest in the dramatic.
This interest has been transposed into everyday life as the teen pregnancy rate in America rises.
Teens see funny, popular, and seemingly mature teen mothers in Hollywood so often that it is not
surprising that many of these young girls view them as role models. Teen pregnancy rates will
continue to rise in America until Hollywood ceases the glamorization of pregnancy by depicting
it as a coming-of-age event.
Works Cited
Allen-Mills, Tony. “Teen ‘Pregnancy Pact’ Has US Town Reeling in Shame.” TimesOnline 22
June 2008. Web. 21 September 2010.
Back , Kimberly. "Teen Pregnancy and Adoption". eHow. Web. 29 May 2010.
Juno. Dir. Jason Reitman. Screenwriter Diablo Cody. Fox Searchlight Pictures, 2007. Film.
Kingsbury, Kathleen. “Pregnancy Boom at Gloucester High.” Time 18 June 2008. Web. 1
October 2010.
PWR Home
Blonde Is a Primary Color
Mariana Rodriguez
Every morning proved to be the same story. The incessant beep beep beep of the
distant alarm clock interrupted my fantasy world of unicorns and charmed frogs, jostling
me into the usual, monotonous routine I so dreaded. This morning was different,
however. I did not need an inanimate object or my nagging mother to stir me from my
dreams. The mere anticipation and anxiety that are synonymous with the unknown
conquered my mind, leaving me doubtful and dazed. The hygienic tasks that I usually
performed in a dreamlike state took a life of their own. I was the marionette and my own
body the puppeteer guiding the brush in my hand through every strand of hair,
demanding softness and perfection. My mother kept yelling expressions of
encouragement in Spanish from downstairs, but the invisible earmuffs around my head
muffled her voice. I needed no support, only salvation from the inevitable failure that
awaited me.
I was thankful for the traffic that held us at the five intersections prior to our
destination. It was as if the universe was in consensus, I was not ready to embrace the
new world. Pulling up to the building, all I could see was a constantly flowing river of
blonde set amidst picturesque scenery and loquacious mothers excited about their first
day of self-indulgence. I became aware of the jean-short, tank-top wearing robots who
smiled to advertise their perfectly white teeth. Their interactions amazed and bewildered
me, reinforcing my marginality in that world not only because of the language barrier, but
also because I wore strawberry-patterned sweatpants with a shiny pink shirt and my teeth
needed extensive dental work. I pretended to be a chameleon who could camouflage
herself into the proper denim shade my mother wore, yet the Barbies easily found my
brightness against the blue background and began to stare. Using all the psychic ability I
possessed, I willed my body to transport itself back to the beach, back to the only
universe I had known in which I was an active participant and not a bystander scared
shitless of the future. My legs somehow managed to glide me into a classroom decorated
with neon posters unnoticed, and I proceeded to discern my name among the various
Kristens and Davids that lined the teal plastic cups. After finding my place to be in the
very front of the room, I quickly dismissed my parents, sat down in the blue chair, faced
forward, and pretended to comprehend the introductions my peers reluctantly extended to
me.
The hours after my family abandoned me in that alien world escaped from my
memory completely, becoming my subconscious’s first attempt at suppression. Seconds
flowed into minutes, the minutes into hours, and before I could remove my peeled orange
from its designated Ziploc bag for snack time, I became nonchalant once more in time for
recess.
Familiarizing myself with my personal prison took longer than I expected.
Apparently, as inmates, we were granted enough freedom to compensate for the bigoted
views instilled in our minds, and I took the liberty of exploring every corner of the fenced
fields. No birds chirped on that bright summer day, no warm breeze refreshed the stuffy
atmosphere. I strolled past the whispering children, gossiping elaborate theories of my
name and origin, while noticing the brave few who parted their lips in an effort to utter a
welcoming phrase, yet decided against bridging the gap between being my acquaintance
and my friend. I cannot say I blame them for such an act; I myself would have made the
same decision. Empathizing with a stranger takes humanity, while joining her in her
solitude requires an amount of self-conviction no fourth grader has. As I arrived at the
corner in which the metal fence meets the woods, tears streamed down my asymmetrical
face, dripping down to the blades of grass that should have been emerald given the
season. A distant whistle was blown, and I dried my face, ready to embrace my
helplessness.
The rest of the day passed in a nonsensical blur, presenting situations that
accentuated my peculiarity in the blonde world. I had grown accustomed to the
bandwagon of feelings that echoed my vulnerability, and seeing my mother’s white car
loop around the front of the building that afternoon gave me no relief. Answering her
probing questions with a single nod, I remained dazed. Thoughts of the monumental
embarrassment I endured overcame my mind, compelling me to scream out in agony. I
wanted my mom to understand how deeply wounded I was, wanted her to apologize for
setting me up for humiliation, yet my mouth remained closed and my eyes directly set on
the road ahead. Somehow, my mother perceived my quiet desperation and bought me my
very first chocolate shake from the McDonalds on our way to the house.
I was forced to relive my misery four more times that evening in conversation
with my probing aunts. Everyone was curious about my teacher, the other students, and
the events that occurred. Yet no one bothered to inquire as to my loneliness and no one
asked about how I had been treated. I took an abnormally long shower later that night to
relieve the mounting fury. The salty tears mixed with the fresh water that streaked down
my face, and the soap penetrated my skin as I accepted solitude as my best friend. I
understood that despite the best efforts my peers would eventually make to include me, a
certain part of me would continue to long for the overwhelming humidity of the tropics
and for the distant song of the coqui that I had grown accustomed to falling asleep to
every night. They say that acceptance is the first step of the healing process, and in a
sense, I was somehow aware of that fact even at a young age. Even though nothing can
erase the sheer mortification I experienced while walking to the corner where the fence
meets the woods knowing I was the headline news of the fourth grade, I can reflect on
that day and smile. Had it not been for the totally desolate emotions I felt, that
McDonalds chocolate shake never would have tasted as sweet and as creamy as it did.
After waiting for the last water drop to splash on the tub, I headed down the stairs,
forcing my feet to make imprints on the carpet with every step. My mom didn’t fret over
how empty I felt, nor did she offer her condolences. She merely asked what I wanted as a
snack for lunch for the next day. I had no preference as to the contents of either meal; all
I knew was that I wanted my orange peeled in a Ziploc bag.
PWR Home
Deinstitutionalization and the Current State of
Mental Health Care
Samantha Wellington
For many decades, the institutionalization of psychiatric patients has incited much
debate. In the 1960s factors such as ethical concerns and changes in public opinion led to
criticism of mental institutions by both scholars and popular media and a rapid
deinstitutionalization movement (Rochefort 1). In place of hospitalization, many patients
are now treated through community mental health centers. Community care was
implemented in an effort to provide mental patients with the opportunity to integrate into
society (Talbott 621). Despite the positive aspects of deinstitutionalization, many scholars
criticize the movement for its negative outcomes and some argue that institutions play a
crucial role in mental health care. This literature review explains the stances that various
scholars take on deinstitutionalization.
Many of the arguments for deinstitutionalization were formed when the
movement began. The factors that spurred deinstitutionalization are varied and include
ethical concerns and a shift in public opinion. David A. Rochefort, a distinguished
professor in the area of mental health care and public policy, authored a 1984 article that
explains the effect of WWII on public opinion. Rochefort notes that many men were
discharged from service for psychiatric problems and because it was believed that
veterans deserved to be treated honorably, public opinion shifted to a greater acceptance
of mental illness and a willingness to allow the mentally ill to be a part of society. The
changing public opinions of mental institutions were propagated and reflected by popular
media exposés on the “deficiencies of state institutions” such as understaffing and
overcrowding (Rochefort 4). According to Rochefort, these exposés furthered public
rejection of state mental institutions.
Along with changes in public opinion, many researchers link criticism of mental
institutions and their management of the rights of mental patients to deinstitutionalization
(Accordino, Porter, and Morse; Kemp). In her 2007 book Mental Health in America,
Kemp explains that prior to deinstitutionalization, institutions began using treatments
such as “electroshock therapy, and lobotomy,” most of which were performed with
“devastating results” (Kemp 9). Such inhumane procedures led to the inevitable and
lasting rejection of state institutions. Additionally, scholars condemn mental institutions
for their role in involuntary treatment. Many people believe that “forced treatment
violates basic civil and constitutional rights and erodes self-determination” (Kemp 45).
Community care attempts to give mental patients the opportunity to live in freedom
because community facilities do not forcibly treat or detain patients.
In addition to having a strong ethical platform, some research shows positive
effects of community care. A 1982 meta-analysis by Charles Kiesler analyzing ten
studies which randomly assigned mental patients to institutions or to a form of outpatient
care found that “in no case were the outcomes of hospitalization more positive than
alternative treatment” (Kiesler 349). In fact, alternative care was actually more effective
in regard to outcomes such as “psychiatric evaluation, probability of subsequent
employment, [and] independent living arrangements” (Kiesler 349). Furthermore, under
community care, patients are very much in control of their own treatment (Kemp). In this
way deinstitutionalization removes one of the major ethical issues that mental health
institutions present.
While many scholars have detailed the benefits of deinstitutionalization, there are
also scholars who criticize the movement and its outcomes. As early as 1979 Dr. John A.
Talbott, the 1984-1985 president of the American Psychiatric Association, classified
deinstitutionalization as a failure due to a phenomenon he calls
“transinstitutionalization.” This term describes a situation in which mental patients’ care
and living environments were transferred from one “lousy institution,” meaning state
psychiatric hospitals, “to multiple wretched ones” (Talbott 622). Many scholars confirm
that a number of the patients released from psychiatric hospitals now reside in homeless
shelters and prison systems (Accordino, Porter, and Morse; Fischer, Shapiro, and
Breakey; Kemp). Unfortunately, these living situations are not just one-time occurrences.
According to a 2009 PBS Frontline video, this year 325,000 mentally ill prisoners will be
released, and within 18 months, nearly two-thirds of them will be back in prison
(Frontline). The Frontline video indicates that these factors represent at least a partial
failure in community mental health care to treat the mentally ill.
The causes of these negative outcomes have been the topic of much research and
act as specific criticisms of the deinstitutionalization movement. One reason Talbott gives
for the failure of deinstitutionalization is that there was “no provision for supplying the
patients with all the services available in the state hospital” (Talbott 622). Patients in
institutions are provided with all of the services, such as counseling, medication, and
housing, that they could possibly need, but under community care they are responsible
for finding and organizing these services for themselves. This is a task that proves to be
very difficult for people with psychological disorders (Talbott). Talbott also argues that
while we have certainly come a long way, “American society has not progressed to the
point that it is totally comfortable with naked men dancing on Broadway” (Talbott 623).
The issue is that community services need a location and must have support in order to
function, but most people are not comfortable with those services being in their
community. A third reason multiple scholars give for the negative outcomes of
deinstitutionalization is the sheer lack of community programs (Talbott; Accordino,
Porter, and Morse). Mental institutions closed rather quickly, but “the community
facilities did not develop apace” (Talbott 622). This left an inadequate supply of services
to meet the demand of the patients.
Despite the move toward community care, there is still support for institutions,
perhaps not as they were in the 1950s, but how they currently or potentially function.
Based on their 2009 study of state psychiatric hospitals, Fisher, Geller, and Pandiani
“contend that the role of state hospitals has been one of managing populations deemed
inappropriate for other settings” (Fisher, Geller, and Pandiani 679). Mental institutions
serve criminals, sexually dangerous persons, and those reluctant “to leave the hospital
and confront the challenges of life in a new setting” (Fisher, Geller, and Pandiani 680).
Moreover, psychiatric hospitals have changed since the deinstitutionalization movement
gained momentum. In fact, according to Fisher, Geller, and Pandiani, “the rights of
patients treated in them are more comprehensively protected than they are in many
general or private hospitals” (Fisher, Geller, and Pandiani 683). For these reasons, some
scholars still support state psychiatric hospitals and believe they play a crucial role in
treating mental health disorders.
While the efficacy of deinstitutionalization is a source of much contention, what
is clear to most scholars is that a solution must be implemented to remedy the problems
in the current systems. Some solutions focus on modifying current community programs
in order to make them more effective. For example, Talbott concludes his article by
presenting “ten commandments” for implementation of future deinstitutionalization.
Others, such as Fisher, Geller, and Pandiani, suggest improving mental institutions.
Regardless of the approach, most scholars believe that reform must work to improve the
results for mentally ill citizens who have been released from institutions and for those
who still need long-term care.
Bibliography
Accordino, Michael P., Dion F. Porter, and Torrey Morse. "Deinstitutionalization of
Persons with Severe Mental Illness: Context and Consequences." Journal of
Rehabilitaiton (2001): 16-21.
Fischer, Pamela J., et al. "Mental Health and Social Characteristics of the Homeless: A
Survey of Mission Users." American Journal of Public Health (1986): 519-524.
Fisher, William H., Jeffrey I. Geller, and John A. Pandiani. "The Changing Role of the
State Psychiatric Hospital." Health Affairs (2009): 676-684.
Frontline. “The Released.” 28 April 2009. 5 November 2009
<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/released/view/>.
Kemp, Donna R. Mental Health in America. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2007.
Kiesler, Charles A. "Mental Hospitals and Alternative Care: Noninstitutionalization as
Potential Public Policy for Mental Patients." American Psychologist (1982): 349360.
Rochefort, David A. "Origins of the ‘Third Psychiatric Revolution’: The Community
Mental Health Centers Act of 1963." Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law
(1984): 1-30.
Talbott, John A. "Deinstitutionalization: Avoiding the Disasters of the Past." Hospital
and Community Psychiatry (1979): 621-624.
PWR Home
Computer Engineering Major Peter Bowlin A proposal to change the electrical and computer
engineering major at CU Boulder to computer
engineering only
December 10, 2009
Peter Bowlin
2780 Taft Dr.
Boulder, CO 80302
719-439-7174
Dr. Robert H. Davis
Dean, College of Engineering and Applied Science
1111 Engineering Drive
422 UCB
Boulder, CO 80309-0422
Dr. Davis,
Enclosed is a proposal to change the electrical and computer engineering major offered by
the College of Engineering and Applied Science to computer engineering only. As a result
of the large number of core classes required for this degree, there’s little time for electives
specific to the major. This in turn severely limits the number of choices students have in
what classes they take and what areas they wish to specialize in.
Along with the name change, this proposal will introduce some curriculum changes with
the goal of increasing computer engineering students’ knowledge of digital computers and
allowing them more freedom in selecting their upper division classes.
Thank you for your time and consideration. If you have any questions or concerns, don’t
hesitate to call me at 719-439-7174 or email me at [email protected].
Sincerely,
Peter Bowlin
Abstract
Currently the Department of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering at the
University of Colorado at Boulder offers two undergraduate majors. Students can major in
electrical engineering (EE), or they can major in electrical and computer engineering
(ECE). These degrees are very similar, but ECE takes essentially all of the required classes
from EE and adds even more, resulting in little time for elective classes. This limits the
flexibility students have in what they study and makes it difficult for them to specialize.
Another problem with combining these two majors is that some students, who may be
more interested in computer engineering and not as interested in electrical engineering, are
forced to take many credit hours of classes dealing with analog circuit design, classes that
have limited relevance to designing computer systems.
To remedy this, ECE should be changed to computer engineering only, and
changes should be made to the curriculum to reflect this difference. Some of the less
important EE core classes focused on analog design can be removed, making room for
more upper division computer engineering electives. This will give students who choose
the major a more comprehensive view of it, and better prepare them to work in the field of
computer engineering. In addition, it will help position the major more neatly between
electrical engineering and computer science, both of which have significant overlap with
computer engineering.
Introduction and Background
Computer engineering is an exciting and rapidly expanding field within the
engineering discipline. Compared to some of the other engineering disciplines, such as
mechanical or aerospace engineering, computer engineering is relatively new, with the first
accredited computer engineering programs showing up only in the early 1970s (IEEE
Computer Society). Computer engineering (CE), defined very briefly, is the analysis and
design of computer hardware and software. “Computer” is very broadly defined in this
case, and includes anything from a desktop PC to a cell phone to even something as simple
as a digital watch. Needless to say, computers of all types have become extremely
prevalent in modern society, and there seems little doubt this trend will continue. To truly
understand what computer engineering is and why it’s important, however, we first have to
look at two other areas within engineering: electrical engineering and computer science.
Electrical engineering (EE) can be defined as the study and application of
electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. Upon examination, most aspects of
electrical engineering that are practiced today fit into one of two categories: analog circuit
design, and digital circuit design. Analog design is the older, more traditional area and
includes things like electromagnetics, wave propagation, power electronics, and signal
processing. All of these areas require the use of many of the same basic electrical devices
such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors (bipolar and MOSFET), etc. As
a result, circuits classes, which cover the basics of these devices and their applications, are
at the foundation of any electrical engineering curriculum. The other area within EE is
digital circuit design, which is the basis for computer hardware. Digital circuits represent
data at discrete (as opposed to continuous) levels, usually 1 and 0. Digital circuits are
created out of a combination of logic gates that implement Boolean logic functions such as
NOT, AND, OR, etc. Although logic gates are created out of analog components such as
CMOS transistors (a specific application of MOSFETs), most of the focus is on what can
be created with these abstract logic gates, ignoring the underlying implementation.
Computer science (CS) can primarily be thought of as the study and design of
computer software. Once again, this can be broken down into two rough categories: high
level and low level software. High level software primarily refers to applications, for
example programs like Microsoft Office, Internet browsers, media players, virus scanners,
or games, just to name a few. In general, applications don’t interact directly with the
computer hardware, which means they require an operating system of some sort to run and
are relatively platform independent, meaning they can be run on systems with varying
hardware. Low level software, on the other hand, generally does interact directly with
computer hardware, and would include things like operating systems for PCs or firmware
for embedded computers such as those in cells phones or cars. You could also think of low
level software as encompassing assembly language, which is the language a processor
executes natively, and instruction sets (an instruction set is the set of instructions that make
up an assembly language).
As you can see in Figure 1 below, computer engineering (CE) is really a
combination of elements from electrical engineering and computer science, specifically
digital circuit design and low level software.
Figure 1
The reason for this is simply that a computer requires both of these elements to function.
The fact that physical hardware is required is fairly obvious, but to make the hardware do
anything useful, a stored program of some sort is equally necessary. As a result, it’s only
natural that computer engineers would strive to understand both of these areas as well as
their integration, even if this means straddling two fairly different aspects of engineering.
Problem
Currently, the Department of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering at the
University of Colorado at Boulder offers two different majors. You can major in electrical
engineering, or you can major in electrical and computer engineering. However, despite
the fact that much of CE is software related, the current ECE degree is much more similar
to and shares many more requirements with the EE degree than it does with the computer
science degree. Overall, this setup doesn’t make a lot of sense when you consider what
material is covered by EE and what is covered by ECE (see Figure 2), and it causes a
couple of significant problems for students majoring in electrical and computer
engineering.
Figure 2. EE, ECE, and CS, the majors currently offered at the University of
Colorado–Boulder
The first problem is that as a result of combining these two areas into one major,
there end up being too many core classes. This, in turn, means there’s very little time for
the upper division elective classes that represent more specific areas within electrical and
computer engineering. Currently, ECE majors take one freshman elective class (about 3
hours) and three upper division elective classes (about 9 hours), which total about 12 credit
hours. This is considerably lower than some of the other engineering majors offered by
CU. For example, students majoring in only electrical engineering take about 23 credit
hours of major-specific electives (Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering).
For computer science majors, including the “track” classes they take (they choose one of
seven different tracks), the number is about 37 hours (Department of Computer Science).
Students majoring in applied math choose 24 credits of upper division classes from the
applied math department and 24 credits of classes from other engineering departments,
resulting in a total of 48 hours (Department of Applied Mathematics). As a result of taking
so few electives, ECE majors are unable to take many classes in areas they’re specifically
interested in, and also find it more difficult to differentiate themselves from other students
of the same major.
The second major problem with the current setup is that students who really just
want to major in computer engineering are forced to also take a large number of electrical
engineering classes that have less relevance to computer engineering. The degree to which
this is the case varies a little depending on the class, but some examples would be classes
like Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, Linear Systems, and Circuits 1, 2, and 3, all of
which are focused almost entirely on the analog aspects of EE. In addition, these are all 5credit-hour classes, meaning that these five alone account for almost 20% of the total
credits required for the degree. While the analog aspects of EE covered in these classes do
have some relevance to computer engineers, some of this time would be better spent
increasing their knowledge of digital computers.
Proposal
The solution to these problems is remarkably straightforward – change the
electrical and computer engineering major to computer engineering only, and make some
changes to the curriculum to reflect this name change. Note that the electrical engineering
major and curriculum will remain unchanged, so students wishing to pursue this field will
still be free to do so. The changes will involve removing some of the core classes from the
old ECE curriculum that aren’t relevant to CE, adding an additional computer science
class, and also making some significant changes to the way the upper division electives
work. The logic behind all of these changes, and especially what classes to remove and
what not to remove, is really about allowing students to take more upper division electives,
and electives that are more relevant to computer engineering, rather than electrical
engineering. The way the major-specific electives are currently set up, students choose one
noncomputer theory course, one noncomputer lab course, and one software elective (see
Figure 3 in the appendix for the current ECE curriculum). Almost all of the noncomputer
electives require as a prerequisite Circuits 3, Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, or Linear
Systems. Also, while the majority of these electives are not within the sphere of computer
engineering, meaning they can be removed, there are a few of them that will be of interest.
The first class that can be removed is Circuits/Electronics 3. This class is primarily
focused on a couple of different things. About the first 40% of the class is spent on diodes
(a diode is a two-terminal circuit element) and their applications. Diodes are mainly used
in the field of power electronics, which is why Circuits 3 is a prerequisite for electives like
Energy Conversion I, Intro to Power Electronics, and Power Lab. These are all topics that
computer engineers usually aren’t concerned with. The rest of the class is spent on two
three-terminal circuit devices, MOSFETs and BJTs. Students learn about their internal
workings and basic operation, and also about some of their applications. The main
application covered is their use as the basis for AC signal amplifiers, another topic that
doesn’t have much relevance to computer engineers. As you may recall from the
introduction, however, MOSFETs are also used to create CMOS transistors, which are
used to create most digital (i.e., computer) hardware. While this might seem like a valid
reason to keep Circuits 3 in the computer engineering curriculum, only the last two or three
lectures of the course cover this application of MOSFETs, which is not enough to justify
leaving things as they are now. Also, as was mentioned before, computer engineers are
generally not concerned with this underlying implementation.
Another class that can be removed from the curriculum is Electromagnetic Fields
and Waves (E & M for short). In some respects, this course is about explaining where a lot
of the theory behind circuits and circuit elements comes from, and it covers things like
electric fields, magnetic fields, transmission lines, and wave propagation. It’s a precursor
to upper division electives such as Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission, Intro to
Optical Communication, and the lab electives that go along with these classes. As with
Circuits 3, none of those electives will be of particular interest or relevance to most
computer engineers, so there’s no reason to keep this prerequisite class in the curriculum.
The last core class to be removed is General Physics 3. This class covers topics
such as special relativity and quantum mechanics, which, once again, are of minimal use in
designing computer systems. In addition, unlike Circuits 3 and E & M, Physics 3 is not
required for any of the old ECE elective classes. Finally, another reason to remove this
class is that it requires having taken either Physics 2 or E & M. In other words, keeping
this class would also require adding another 3-credit class, making a total of 6 credit hours
that could be used for computer engineering electives instead.
There’s also one core class that will be added with the new curriculum, CSCI 3104
– Algorithms, an existing class that is part of the core requirements for computer science
majors. Currently ECE majors take two computer science classes: Computer Science I and
CS II: Data Structures, both of which are also core classes for CS majors. The logic behind
adding this third class is that it will give CE majors more programming experience, and it’s
also a prerequisite for some of the additional software electives that will be added, which
we’ll get to shortly.
The most drastic change to the curriculum will be the differences in the upperdivision elective requirements. With the new curriculum, there will be two types of
electives: hardware and software. Students will be required to take six total elective
classes, for a total of about 18-20 credit hours. Also, they’ll have to take at least two
hardware elective classes and two software classes. Other than that, any combination will
meet the requirements. This setup will give students a lot of freedom of choice in what
they wish to study, and at the same prevent them from ignoring one category of electives.
The hardware electives are as follows:
 ECEN 4138 – Control Systems Analysis
 ECEN 4532 – Digital Signal Processing Lab
 ECEN 4613 – Embedded Systems Design
 ECEN 4623 – Real-Time Embedded Systems
 ECEN 4632 – Digital Filtering
 ECEN 4633 – Hybrid Embedded Systems
 ECEN 4638 – Controls Lab
 ECEN 4693 – Adv. Computer Architecture (new undergraduate class)
 ECEN 4811 – Neural Sigs & Functional Brain Img.
 ECEN 4821 – Neural Systems & Physiological Ctrl.
 ECEN 4831 – Brains, Minds & Computers
As you may notice, many of these classes are taken from the existing list of
noncomputer theory and lab courses (see Figure 2). The reason for keeping these courses
specifically is that they’ll be of more interest and relevance to computer engineers than the
courses that were removed. While some of these areas may not involve the actual design of
computer systems, in practice many will be implemented using a computer of some sort.
For example, digital signal processing will usually be done using a special computer chip
made for exactly that type of thing and programmed using a language such as C. Another
example would be control systems, which are often applied in areas like robotics,
something that is directly related to CE (a robot needs a computer of some sort to control
it). However, both of these areas (digital signal processing and control systems) also
require knowledge of linear systems, which is why that class remains in the new CE
curriculum (along with Circuits 1 and 2, which are prerequisites) while Circuits 3 and E &
M are removed. In addition to these classes carried over from the old curriculum, there are
four additional choices. The three embedded systems courses are logical choices, given
that this is a core area within CE. For some reason, these classes are part of the EE
curriculum but not the old ECE curriculum, which is one of its more glaring deficiencies.
The only one of the above classes that isn’t already in existence and offered by the ECEE
department is Advanced Computer Architecture. However, there is already a graduate
version of this class, so this will simply be another case where the undergraduate and
graduate versions of the same class meet together.
Following this is the new list of software electives that will be available. Many of
these are taken from the existing list of software electives, and the new ones are preexisting
classes selected from the complete list of computer science electives, ones that should be
of particular interest to computer engineers. Specifically, they’re classes that deal more
with low level software, rather than high level applications, as discussed in the
introduction.
 ECEN 4553 – Compiler Construction
 ECEN 4583 – Software Systems Development
 CSCI 3155 – Principles of Programming Languages
 CSCI 3202 – Intro to Artificial Intelligence
 CSCI 3287 – Database & Information Systems
 CSCI 3308 – Software Engr Methods & Tools
 CSCI 3434 – Theory of Computation
 CSCI 3753 – Operating Systems
 CSCI 4113 – Unix Systems Administration
 CSCI 4123 – Network Lab
 CSCI 4202 – Artificial Intelligence 2
 CSCI 4229 – Computer Graphics
 CSCI 4273 – Network Systems
 CSCI 4322 – Things That Think
 CSCI 4576 – High-Performance Scientific Computing 1
 CSCI 4586 – High-Performance Scientific Computing 2
 CSCI 4753 – Computer Performance Modeling
 CSCI 4838 – User Interface Design
Benefits
Overall, this new curriculum will give CE majors a much more comprehensive
view of computer engineering. Specifically, the added computer science class and revised
electives will increase students’ knowledge of both digital hardware and low level
software, the two elements required to create a modern, functional computer. It will also
give junior and senior level students more choice in what they study. On top of that, they’ll
no longer have to take quite so many EE classes that are focused on analog design and
hence have less relevance to them. This, along with the other curriculum changes, will
allow the computer engineering major to be more centered between electrical engineering
and computer science than the ECE program is now.
This proposal will also bring some compelling benefits for the College of
Engineering and Applied Science. As a result of the curriculum changes, the Department
of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering will produce better, more diverse
students. This means a higher reputation and national ranking for the University. As a
result, more students will be attracted to the program, and tuition can be raised slightly. In
addition, because computer engineering students will receive a better education and be
more prepared for their careers, their average incomes will be higher, potentially resulting
in more alumni dollars.
Counterarguments Addressed
There are some arguments against this solution, however. First of all, students’
knowledge of the lowest level analog technology used to create digital circuits, such as
CMOS transistors, will be decreased. Also, some of the knowledge of how digital circuits
behave, particularly when run at very high clock speeds, will be lost because of the
removal of the E & M class. While this may seem like critical knowledge, computer
engineers are usually not very concerned with the underlying implementation and
functionality of these components that make up digital circuits, and so it’s not as important
as might be assumed. The reason for this lack of concern is that designing hardware as part
of a computer system is nearly always taken at least one, and often many, levels of
abstraction higher. The designer is no longer dealing with something as minute as the
CMOS transistors themselves, or even the Boolean logic gates created with the transistors.
Of course, some people do need to concern themselves with such things, but this really is a
separate area, and can safely be left up to the electrical engineers who specialize in it.
Consequently, this will be a fairly minor loss, and is easily made up for by the fact that
students will have a considerably better understanding of everything else related to digital
hardware, as well as low level software.
The second potential drawback is that students no longer have the opportunity to
get a degree in electrical and computer engineering simultaneously, and in the same
amount of time as other engineering degrees. However, this is mitigated a lot by the fact
that, even after the changes, the requirements for electrical engineering and computer
engineering will still be very similar. Even if a student felt he or she just had to get both
degrees, double majoring would add only about 19 credits on top of the 128 if electives
were chosen correctly. In any case, the advantages offered by allowing students to
specialize in whichever area they’re truly interested in far outweigh this concern.
Another point worth considering – some people might suggest that an alternative
solution to the one proposed here, besides simply leaving things the way they are, would
be to remove computer engineering entirely. Electrical engineering and computer science
would remain, and going back to the Venn diagram in the introduction, those two spheres
together would encompass all four areas of interest, including digital circuit design and
low level software. However, this line of thinking overlooks the advantages provided to a
computer engineer when tasked with a computer engineering job. While the job may not
involve actively designing both the hardware and software of a computer, the two are very
much integrated. Someone who has majored in CE, and therefore has extensive knowledge
of both these areas, will likely have a better understanding and be able to perform at a
higher standard compared to an electrical engineer, who has good knowledge of the
hardware but limited knowledge of the software, or a computer scientist, who has good
knowledge of the software but limited hardware knowledge. Viewed from this perspective,
offering a computer engineering degree, and having it separate from electrical engineering,
makes a lot of sense.
Cost
Implementing this proposal would involve some minor administrative changes,
such as rewriting the Department of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering’s help
guide to reflect the curriculum changes and the name change from electrical and computer
engineering to computer engineering only. No doubt there would be numerous other places
the name would need to be changed across the University’s systems. There is also the one
new class, Advanced Computer Architecture, which might take a little work by one of the
faculty to define what the standards would be for undergraduate students taking the class,
as opposed to the graduate students who take the 5000 level version now. However, all of
these things would most likely fall within the normal responsibilities of University
employees or faculty. For example, writing a new help guide has to be done periodically
anyway, and the University clearly has employees responsible for maintaining its various
systems who could easily make minor changes such as the name change from ECE to CE.
Defining the standards for Advanced Computer Architecture, assuming they even need to
be different from those for the graduate version of the class, should also be a minor task,
and easily completed by the professor who teaches it the first semester after the change.
This means the overall cost of implementing this proposal should be negligible at worst. In
fact, as discussed in the benefits section, it should result in a net increase in income for the
University.
Conclusions
As it stands, students majoring in electrical and computer engineering at CU
Boulder are burdened with an overabundance of core classes, denying them the additional
freedom of choice and opportunities for specialization they could have with more elective
classes. Additionally, students who wish to concentrate simply on computer engineering
are unable to do so, and are instead required to take many credit hours of classes dealing
with analog design that won’t be as relevant to them as computer hardware and software.
Changing the major to computer engineering only, removing a few of the numerous EE
classes focused on analog design, and adding more hours of computer engineering
electives will make the degree more focused and complete. With the new curriculum,
computer engineering will be neatly placed between electrical engineering and computer
science, and students graduating with this degree will be exceptionally well prepared for all
aspects of designing computer systems.
Works Cited
"B.S. Degree in Applied Mathematics Requirements." Department of Applied
Mathematics, University of Colorado. Boulder: 2009. Web. 15 Nov. 2009.
"BS Degree Requirements - 2007-2008." Department of Computer Science, University of
Colorado. Boulder: 2009. Web. 15 Nov. 2009.
"Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Engineering."
IEEE Computer Society: Association for Computing Machinery. New York: 12
Dec. 2004. Web. 15 Nov. 2009.
"HELP! Guide: Fall 2008/Spring 2009." Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of Colorado. Boulder: 2 July 2008. Web. 2 Nov. 2009.
Appendix
Figure 3. Old ECE Curriculum (Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering)
PWR Home
20
General Motors
Division of Marketing
A New Green GM
How to Sell Cars Again
Tyler Dodge - Division of Marketing: Assistant Director
Executive Summary
A New Green GM: How to Sell Cars Again
General Motors (GM) needs to be sure it can survive after its restructuring. The best way for GM to
maintain its viability is to begin meeting current and emerging market demand by investing in a
vanguard of “green” products.
At GM there is pride in our heritage, but this company has held this heritage for too long, especially
in the development of its vehicles. This trend has drastically hurt GM financially over the past
decade, because it has been designing vehicles that are not meeting new and emerging consumer
demands and trends for environmentally responsible vehicles. Although competitors are starting to
meet consumer demands for efficient vehicles, GM has a long record of ignoring calls for increased
vehicle efficiency.
Recommendation: Invest in a Cutting-Edge Green Product Line
The company needs to expand its alternative fuel vehicle development to
A) Commit to, and set a goal for, progressive efficiency and MPG standards
B) Learn from work done with the EV1 and Volt
C) Focus its product line
D) Capitalize on an emerging market demand
By committing to these goals, GM can create an unrivaled demand for its vehicles.
The best and most efficient way for GM to create a product line that maintains and expands the
company’s viability is to have its research and design teams create deeper partnerships with
marketing teams that have knowledge of new green consumer demands and federal and state
governments that can provide outside funding and research to the company. These partnerships
meet a need for efficiency within the company, and ensure that GM will meet and exceed green
market demands and regulations.
General Motors has long prided itself in being not only the largest American car company, but also
the largest in the world. Owing to a fundamental shift in the demands of American consumers, the
company must make a significant investment in a new, environmentally friendly, and appealing
product line. Using successful marketing and design collaboration and partnering with the
government, GM can begin meeting the current and future demand for green vehicles and regain its
status as the strongest car company worldwide.
A New Green GM
Good company, good people, bad decisions. The average SUV produced last year by General
Motors had a fuel economy rating of 21 miles per gallon (MPG), the same MPG that Henry Ford’s
original Model T got (Ford Motor Company, n.d.). Throughout its long history, General Motors (GM)
has seen its ups and its downs, but until now, it has never seen a market where it cannot meet
consumer demand. This company is struggling to stay alive, and it needs to be sure that it can
survive after its restructuring.
There is only one way to do this; GM needs to start producing cars that people want to buy. From a
marketing perspective, the leadership within this company needs to invest more into “green,”
environmentally conscious technologies and vehicles if it wants to remain viable in the future. By
creating successful partnerships and cutting excess capacity in its product line, the company can
make a green future a reality.
A New Take on Our History
From the pink Cadillac to the little red Corvette, GM vehicles are a staple of both automotive and
American history. Many of the company’s current customers are attracted to this rich history.
However, this customer base alone is far from sufficient to keep the company viable in the coming
years. GM’s historic status throughout the past two decades has been continually declining owing to
an inability to meet new consumer demands. It is time to take the company’s vibrant history and
rework it to create the best and most marketable vehicles for new and emerging consumers.
A Decade of Poor Sales
Although General Motors still remains the largest manufacturer of automobiles worldwide, its market
share has dwindled owing to the disappointing sales of the two last decades. The company’s first
yearly profit loss dates all the way back to 1991 (Dickson, 1993). Worse yet, US vehicle sales have
decreased 41% since 2001 (GM Corporate News, 2009). GM’s poor sales performances are linked
not to poor economic conditions, but to a longstanding inability to meet consumer demands through
its product line.
Cars That Do Not Meet Green Market Demand
Business Week columnist Bill George flatly states, “GM’s biggest issue is that it isn’t making cars
that the American people want to buy” (2008). Furthermore, when asked about the American
consumer’s perception of its vehicles in a recent Meet the Press interview, GM’s new CEO, Fritz
Henderson, reaffirmed that “American car-buyers perceive that GM makes vehicles that are of lower
quality and less efficient” (Gregory, 2009). Surprisingly enough, however, GM is producing some of
the highest quality cars in its history. The problem is that Americans do not want to buy them. Why?
Because they do not appeal to the trendiness of new and emergent car buyers.
American trendiness has shifted to socially and environmentally conscious products, and the cars
that people drive are no exception. Hybrid sales since the turn of the century are an excellent
example of this.
A New Green GM
(US Department of Energy, 2007)
A quick glance at the chart above would show that GM is far behind its competitors in the hybrid
vehicle market. Although the company has taken some steps forward in hybrid development, six of
the eight hybrid models that GM produces are large SUVs or trucks that get 20 MPG or less (US
Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2009). Although these vehicles appeal to some of the
company’s base customers, they are not marketable to the broader spectrum of American car
buyers, and they are not efficient enough to appeal to emerging green market consumers.
Not Just about Gas Prices
A key point to remember about hybrids is that their success is related not just to gasoline prices, but
to a fundamental shift in the demands of the American car buyer away from fossil fuels. During the
second half of 2008, oil and gasoline prices decreased by over 60%, but the sales of Toyota’s Prius
hybrid were the highest in its history (Toyota and Lexus top one million, 2009). Also, in a recent
survey, the majority of respondents stated that they would be willing to pay up to 20% more for a
vehicle that was 25% more efficient (Green Car Congress, 2008). The hybrid and alternative fuel
vehicle markets are already large and expanding.
The Expanding Green Market
The expansion of this market gives GM a unique opportunity to meet the challenges of its
competitors and consumers. Toyota has published a 2011 target for the average amount of energy
consumed by its vehicles (Woodyard, 2008). This company has been successful and will continue to
be successful because it not only meets the current market demand for green vehicles, but is also
expanding to meet future demand. Although competitors are hearing consumer demands for
efficient vehicles, GM has a long record of ignoring their calls.
Opposition to Public and Private Green Interests
GM’s corporate image has been tarnished after years of failing to recognize growing concern over
the environmental impacts of its products. Although the company has made substantial investments
A New Green GM
in corporate responsibility projects, it has continually missed the fundamental social and
environmental concern of its stakeholders and customers: the fuel efficiency of its vehicles (General
Motors [GM], 2009).
“No” Can No Longer Be the Answer to Efficiency Standards
General Motors has stood opposed to the federal government’s Corporate Average Fuel Economy
(CAFE) standards from their inception in the 1970s (Rosebro, 2007). These standards regulate the
average MPG that a car manufacturer must achieve across its product line. Unfortunately for GM,
many legislators are calling for the expansion of these and other efficiency standards. This may seem
unfair to the company, but legislators are only acting on the demands of their constituents. In a
recent survey, 87% of respondents felt that the implementation of higher fuel economy standards
was of “high urgency.”
(Green Car Congress [GCC], 2008)
If GM wants to remain viable, the company needs to reexamine its position on fuel efficiency
regulations.
The Shareholders’ Appeal Must Be Honored
Shocking, however, is that GM’s highest stakeholders have been asking the company to commit to
increased fuel efficiency standards for several years. In 2006, the GM shareholders’ representatives
brought a resolution to the company’s annual board meeting recommending that a council be
formed to address
(A) [how] the company plans to remain competitive based on emerging green-house gas
(GHG) regulations, (B) how the company plans to comply with current California GHG
regulations, and (c) how the company will create vehicles with lower GHG emissions. (GM
Shareholders, 2006)
A New Green GM
Although this request seemed to show merit, it was later WITHDRAWN owing to unpublished
negotiations between the two parties. If GM wants to remain viable, it needs to reverse this trend of
dodging efficiency standards and embrace the emerging environmental agenda.
Recommendation: Invest in a Cutting-Edge Green Product Line
The best way for General Motors to maintain its viability by meeting the current and emerging market
demand is for it to invest in a vanguard of “green” products. Although this investment has several
steps to enactment, the company needs to expand its alternative fuel vehicle development to
A) Commit to, and set a goal for, progressive efficiency and MPG standards,
B) Learn from work done with the EV1 and Volt,
C) Focus its product line, and
D) Capitalize on an emerging market demand.
If GM can redesign its product line to meet these goals, the company can ensure its future viability
for years to come.
Commit to Efficiency Standards
General Motors needs to reverse its long record of opposition to fuel efficiency standards and
commit to progressive and sensible MPG standards for its vehicles. From a marketing perspective, a
sensible goal for passenger cars is an average of 40 MPG by 2015, and 50 MPG by 2050. By
setting this goal, the company shows consumers that it cares about their interests. Even if GM were
unable to meet these standards, by making a substantial effort to improve efficiency, the company
begins to prove to America that it is focused on creating a new and sustainable future.
Learn from and Expand on the EV1 and Volt
In the back corner of GM’s museum of cars sits its only production electric vehicle, the EV1.
Although the vehicle showed promise, after three years, in what former GM CEO Rick Wagoner
called “the worst decision of his tenure,” the EV1 model was scrapped (Green, 2006). This cannot
occur with the company’s first plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, the Chevrolet Volt.
When released in 2010, only 60,000 Volts will be produced, while Toyota plans to sell well over 1
million Priuses (Toyota and Lexus top one million, 2009). The success of other fuel efficient vehicles
shows that GM does not need to have limited production of Volt. Years of research have culminated
in the production of the first American plug-in hybrid. General Motors needs to capitalize on this
work and expand on it. The Volt has the opportunity to become GM’s Prius. The company needs to
learn from mistakes it made with the EV1 to foster Volt’s success.
Focus the Product Line
To remain viable and invest in new vehicles like Volt, GM needs to focus its cost structure. Internal
research, outside research, and current business leaders all come to one conclusion as to the best
A New Green GM
way for the company to start cutting its costs: consolidation of its product line. Currently, GM has
eight brands (Buick, Cadillac, GMC, Chevrolet, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, and Pontiac) and 48 models
(GM, 2009). Although the company has already planned to consolidate to the Chevrolet, Cadillac,
Buick, and GMC product lines, it would be smart to reevaluate this proposal. For GM to commit to
environmentally conscious vehicles it should continue cutting costs by also eliminating the GMC and
Buick lines while keeping the Chevrolet, Cadillac, and Saturn lines. This model would be most
beneficial because it cuts infrastructure costs even further, maintains appeal to its current customer
base with the Chevrolet and Cadillac lines, and allows for expansion into emerging green markets
with the already environmentally responsible Saturn line.
Capitalize on the Emerging Market Demand
Environmentally conscious consumers are ready for efficient and green vehicles. However, they
currently have few options available to them. By developing new and innovative vehicles that appeal
to them, GM can create an unrivaled demand for its vehicles. In addition, because these vehicles are
clean, fashionable, and like none other on the market, they will entice weary consumers to buy
again.
Partnering to Make Green Vehicles a Reality
Although there are many obstacles to overcome in the development of a new product line, the best
and most efficient way for GM to create a product line that maintains and expands the company’s
viability is to have its research and design teams create deeper partnerships with
1. Marketing teams with knowledge of new green consumer demands and
2. Federal and state governments that can provide outside funding and research to the
company
These partnerships meet a need for efficiency within the company, and ensure that GM will meet
and exceed green market demands and regulations.
Marketing and Design Departments Working Together
GM’s research and design department needs to collaborate with its marketing department to begin
developing vehicles that satisfy the needs and wants of new American car buyers. By creating a
closer relationship between the designers and the marketers, GM can begin making a concerted
and efficient transition into a twenty-first-century car company. Along with the efficiency that this
partnership brings, it also allows for an increase in employee collaboration and empowerment.
Business Week recently developed a proposal for GM’s restructuring. Crucial to this proposal was
installing a development style committed to new ideas of employee empowerment and
environmental responsibility (George, 2008). By collaborating with the marketing department, GM’s
designers take a significant step toward this goal.
Partnering with the Government
The recent changes in government leadership and legislation throughout the nation will become an
asset in reaching the goal of green vehicle production. First, the government has invested in the
company by giving it a loan of American taxpayer funds. Because the US Congress and Obama
A New Green GM
administration have a stake in the company’s success, they are more than willing to work with GM
to develop vehicles that keep the company viable. Second, part of the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA) is an abundant supply of tax credits and grants for companies investing in
green technologies. By shifting to the development of environmentally conscious vehicles, General
Motors will create over one million new green jobs (GM, 2009). These green jobs make the company
eligible to apply for nearly $3.7 billion in federal grants (ARRA, 2009). Finally, instead of fighting
regulations regarding vehicle emissions, GM should work with legislators and create fuel efficiency
regulations that are attainable but also appeal to constituents concerned about the environment.
How to Sell Cars Again
General Motors stands at the cusp of redefining itself and its products for years to come. Being a
car company with deep American roots, General Motors has a distinct advantage over its
competitors because it already has a strong customer base of American consumers. Unfortunately,
this base is not enough for the company to survive currently or going into the future. Owing to a
fundamental shift in the demands of American consumers, the company must make a significant
investment in a new, environmentally friendly, and appealing product line. Using successful
marketing and design collaboration and partnering with the government, GM can begin meeting the
current and future demand for green vehicles and regain its status as the strongest car company
worldwide.
A New Green GM
Works Cited
2009 model year hybrids. (2009). US Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved April 2, 2009, from
http://www.fueleconomy.gov/Feg/hybrid_news.shtml
American Reinvestment and Recovery Act of 2009, S. 1141, 111th Cong. (2009).
Ford Motor Company. (n.d.) About Ford: The Model T put the world on wheels. Retrieved April 7, 2009, from
http://www.ford.com/about-ford/heritage/vehicles/modelt/672-model-t
Franco, J. (2008, November). Chevy Volt still scheduled for 2010. Global Refining and Fuels Report, 12(23),
46. Retrieved February, 21, 2009, from EBusiness Source Complete database.
General Motors. (2009). 2009-2014 restructuring plan. Retrieved February 22, 2009, from
http://media.gm.com/us/gm/en/news/govt/docs/plan.pfd
George, B. (2008, December 2). A radical fix for GM. BusinessWeek.com. Retrieved February 25, 2009, from
http://www.businessweek.com/managing/content/dec2008/ca2008122_788350.htm
GM Corporate News. (2009). GM reports 221,983 deliveries in December; 2,980,688 vehicles sold in 2008.
Detroit, MI: GM Communications.
GM Shareholders. (2006). Resolution: climate change. General Motors Annual Meeting: 4/28/2006.
Retrieved February 19, 2009, from KLD Research & Analytics, Inc. Socrates database.
Green Car Congress. (2008). European poll finds 87% support urgent 25% reduction in new car fuel
consumption. Retrieved April 4, 2009, from http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/09/europeanpoll-f.html
Green, G. (2006, June). Interview: Rick Wagoner, General Motors Co. Motor Trend, 94.
Gregory, David (Host). (2009, April 5). Exclusive! General Motors CEO Fritz Henderson. Meet the Press.
[Television Broadcast]. Washington, DC: NBC News.
Historical US hybrid vehicle sales. (2007). US Department of Energy: Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy. Retrieved March 18, 2009, from
http://www.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2007_fcvt_fotw462.html
Resorb, J. (2007, May 27). Automakers rally US citizens to oppose higher fuel economy standards. Green
Car Congress. Retrieved April 4, 2009, from
http://www.greencarcongress.com/2007/05/automakers_rall.html
Toyota and Lexus hybrids top one million sales in the U.S. (2009, March 11). PR Newswire. Retrieved April 5,
2009, from ABI/INFORM Dateline database.
Woodyard, C. (2008, January 13). Toyota scales back hybrid goals. USA Today, p. B4.
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The Nature of Redemption and
the Limits of Pessimism in King Lear
Brian Sheldon
King Lear distinguishes itself as Shakespeare’s bleakest tragedy, for it combines a level
of brutality and a moral nihilism that are unparalleled in the rest of his works. The question of
cosmic justice is the central theme in the play, and yet the dramatist’s perspective on the subject
seems to be couched in ambiguity—especially with regard to the significance of the apparently
senseless deaths of Lear and Cordelia in the final scene. This ambiguity is highlighted in the
contrasting opinions of A. C. Bradley and J. Stampfer. In Shakespearean Tragedy, Bradley
contends that Lear attains redemption through his previous suffering, a fact that allows him to die
joyfully after casting off the vanities of worldly existence. However, as Stampfer points out in
“The Catharsis of King Lear,” this interpretation is untenable because Bradley misjudges the
depth to which Shakespeare’s pessimism extends. In the first place, Bradley possesses a weak
understanding of pessimism itself, made evident by his presumption that King Lear is “too
beautiful” to be pessimistic. This “aesthetic” reaction against pessimism causes him to take a
narrow view of cosmic justice, a fact that leads him to conflate the moral with the metaphysical.
As Stampfer demonstrates, the ultimate consequence of this twofold error is that Bradley’s claim
is not supported by the text of the play. Instead of achieving a final state of happiness and
reprieve from torment, the death of Cordelia brings home to Lear a much bleaker truth—namely,
that redemption itself is futile.
In asserting that Bradley’s view of pessimism is inaccurate, I would seem to contradict a
common intuition. However “pessimism” might be defined, it is generally seen as a distorted
viewpoint that overemphasizes the negative and cheerless aspects of existence. Indeed, the word
itself usually has a pejorative ring to it, for it brings to most minds a rather repellent blend of
feeblemindedness and moral failure. Pessimism is seen as a sort of slander of existence, for the
gloomy world the pessimist claims to inhabit is nothing more than the projection of her own
weaknesses and shortcomings. This being the case, it is then assumed that pessimism can have
nothing to do with aesthetic value. Bradley appears to subscribe to this notion, for he believes
that if King Lear were to be viewed as “only” pessimistic, it would therefore be “composed
almost wholly of painful feelings…and that would surely be strange” (Signet ed., 203). Bradley
is certainly not alone in thinking that “painful feelings” are an obstacle to aesthetic worth, and so
I imagine that the majority of readers would identify strongly with his interpretation of the play.
Widespread as this conviction is, however, it cannot claim any substantive measure of
justification. In the first place, we have no reason to presume that a work of art must be
congenial or agreeable in some way in order for it to possess worth. Aristotle’s famous definition
of tragedy actually requires the “pessimistic” emotions of fear and pity to be forcefully conveyed
to the audience. Considering that King Lear provides numerous instances of these “painful
feelings,” it almost seems nonsensical for Bradley to simply reject their value out of hand. This
becomes evident if we extend Bradley’s argument to other areas of aesthetics. For instance,
following Bradley’s reasoning, we would have to conclude that the representations of the
Crucifixion by Raphael and El Greco are utterly hideous, for the torment and death of the Savior
are surely too “unpleasant” to possess positive aesthetic value—a conclusion that, at least to me,
seems clearly absurd. In addition, one should remember that the very idea of the sublime posits
that aesthetic value may be found in terrifying and overwhelming experiences. Of course, it is
true that the classical understanding of sublimity refers to natural beauty rather than (human)
artworks, but all the same, there is no prima facie reason to think that every appellation of beauty
must be strictly segregated according to some artificial categorization of experience. The point is
that “negative” (i.e., unpleasant, disagreeable) attributes do not automatically preclude positive
aesthetic value. Consequently, Bradley is not justified in presuming that the beautiful is limited
wholly to the agreeable, the pleasant, and the happy.
More broadly, however, Bradley’s quick dismissal of pessimism is unjustified because he
addresses only a partial aspect of the concept that is not representative of pessimism as a whole.
In my view, there are a variety of perspectives that might be termed pessimistic, and so Bradley
and many others are incorrect to associate this concept exclusively with the caricatured view that
was mentioned above. Though a detailed exposition of each particular perspective would take us
too far afield to be profitable, it is sufficient to remark that pessimism can also provide an honest
appraisal of the world in which one lives. In fact, I argue that such a viewpoint must be adopted
in order to accurately understand King Lear. Far from being a distorted perspective, it seems
undeniable that the universe of King Lear consists almost entirely in cruelty, suffering, and
desolation. The action of the play is mostly a progression from one misery to another, whether it
is Lear’s madness or Gloucester’s blinding. In addition, the actions of most characters are
motivated by unmitigated spite and malice, whether it is Edmund’s betrayal of his brother,
Cornwall’s treatment of Kent, or the patricidal scheming of Goneril and Regan. Moreover,
beyond the characters themselves, the England of King Lear is a miserable country full of “poor
naked wretches,” wracked by poverty and warfare (3.4.28). Solely on the basis of these facts, one
is therefore tempted to agree with Dr. Johnson’s remark that King Lear is “a play in which the
wicked prosper” (Signet ed., 206).
Rather surprisingly, Bradley explicitly denies this. He argues instead that “[g]ood, in the
widest sense, seems thus to be the principle of life and health in the world; evil…to be a poison”
(Signet ed., 206). Bradley insists that the world actively seeks to expel evil, which is
demonstrated by the fact that all evil is self-defeating. He seems to have a point here, seeing that
all of the evil characters in the play have died by the conclusion of the work. This applies not
only to major characters who are evil—Goneril, Regan, and Edmund—but also to more minor
figures like Cornwall and Oswald. Moreover, the characters who possess ambiguous moral
characteristics—namely, Lear and Gloucester—seem to be purged of their evil inclinations
through the intense suffering each endures. Because there has been such a thorough and
meticulous extermination of evil by the end of the play, Bradley is convinced that the world is
metaphysically inclined towards goodness. He therefore serves as the evangelist of Leibniz’s
happy sophism regarding the “best of all possible worlds,” and is confident that evil is only a
momentary aberration that will be expunged by the firm but benevolent hand of divine
retribution.
However, such confidence is not warranted. Though understandable, Bradley’s infusion
of morality into the metaphysical constitution of Shakespeare’s universe is wholly unjustified. If
we dissociate the play from any external context, the self-defeating nature of evil hardly seems to
be sufficient evidence that the world of King Lear is inherently good. On the contrary, the fact
that one beast devours another serves as more proof that the world of the play is a Hobbesian war
of all against all. For instance, Regan’s murder and Goneril’s suicide in the final act are hardly
cheerful news, for they merely serve as manifestations of yet another layer of the older sisters’
already immense cruelty. It is by no means obvious that their deaths resulted from any universal
moral principle unless one presupposes the existence of such. This being the case, in contrast to
the belief that the world is constantly seeking to expel evil from itself, the universe of King Lear
seems far better captured by William Blake’s description of nature:
A murderous Providence! A Creation that groans, living on Death.
Where Fish & Bird & Beast & Man & Tree & Metal & Stone
Live by Devouring, going into Eternal Death continually! (475)
If evil is self-defeating, it is only because nature is self-devouring. By ignoring this, Bradley
sounds almost like a Scholastic theologian, readily equating goodness with being. But unlike the
Scholastics, he does not offer any proof of this claim, and merely assumes it from the beginning
of his analysis. Murder, madness, torture, duplicity, and warfare are the status quo in the play,
and moral meaning cannot be extracted from, but only imported to, the world of King Lear.
At this point, we must ask why Bradley is so eager to provide a theodicy of King Lear in
the first place. This becomes apparent only later on in his essay when Bradley contends that
“[t]he play could have been called The Redemption of King Lear” (205). Redemption is a
concept that can be interpreted in multiple ways, however, and so it is necessary to understand
what Bradley’s understanding of the term is. Such a definition is offered at the very end of
Shakespearean Tragedy:
Let us renounce the world, hate it, and lose it gladly. The only real thing in
it is the soul, with its courage, patience, devotion. And nothing outward can touch
that.
This, if we like to use the word, is Shakespeare’s ‘pessimism’ in King
Lear… (207)
Redemption for Bradley therefore consists in turning away from the world, for truth, beauty, and
even reality itself cannot be found here. This is a remarkable shift in focus, for Bradley’s
“courage, patience, [and] devotion” might as well be replaced with “faith, hope and charity,” the
key Christian virtues that are mentioned in the Bible (1 Corinthians 13:13). This is significant
because such a “Christian” interpretation of the play seems to be directly opposed to Bradley’s
previous rejection of a pessimistic view of the world. As we have seen, Bradley had argued that
beauty cannot emerge from suffering by itself, and therefore concluded the world of King Lear is
essentially good. However, with the introduction of the thesis of redemption, Bradley radically
qualifies these previous two claims. He now admits that Shakespeare’s universe is full of
suffering (and therefore devoid of “beauty”) and that the only thing capable of attaining
goodness is the immaterial soul. While this might not constitute an outright contradiction, it is
highly misleading. This new idea of redemption asserts that all positive values—whether
aesthetic or moral—must be “otherworldly” in some sense. Beauty and goodness have no earthly
origin, but must instead derive their existence from some apparently transcendental source.
A crucial aspect of this perspective is Bradley’s conviction that “moral perception arises
out of suffering” (205). In light of his understanding of redemption, Bradley holds that the
struggle to endure our earthly existence is the means whereby we see through its illusions.
Consequently, he sees the world as a sort of Purgatory where one is cleansed through suffering,
ultimately earning one’s salvation through atonement. As the greatest proof of this, he asserts
that the denouement of the play describes Lear’s final salvation. He states that the final scene
where Lear is hunched over Cordelia’s lifeless body does not present us with despair and
meaninglessness, but instead argues that the absurdity of his daughter’s death has finally
liberated Lear, allowing him to see through the vanities of earthly existence. His sight is “purged
by scalding tears,” and he “sees at last how power and place and all things in the world are vanity
except love” (205). This elegant sentiment is an admirable step above Bradley’s previous efforts,
almost serving to vindicate his disingenuous combination of divergent concepts. His idea of
redemption casts the significance of King Lear in new light, for he now offers us the hope that
the recognition of the horror of existence is the means by which we can transcend it.
Enticing as it is, however, Stampfer demonstrates that Bradley’s interpretation of the
denouement of the play is not supported by the text. In addition to his idea of an essentially
benevolent universe, Bradley’s concept of redemption is essentially foreign to King Lear.
Indeed, it takes a leap of faith to imagine that Lear’s final moments consist in some sort of
ecstatic joy, sublime and anguished as it may be. It seems much more defensible to think, as
Stampfer argues, that the final scene presents us with Lear’s relapse into madness and despair.
Where Bradley imagines evidence of overcoming and transcendence, Stampfer sees only the last
acts of a desperate and doomed man. Lear’s frantic search for a mirror or a feather to “prove”
that Cordelia is still alive—despite his own admission that “[s]he’s gone forever” (5.3.261)—
does not describe a man who has overcome his earthly burdens, but rather one who has
succumbed to them. Moreover, Stampfer correctly sees that the “repeated cries of ‘Never!’
[5.3.310] are the steady hammering of truth on a mind unable to endure it” (Stampfer, 150).
Unable to bear the weight of the world any longer, Lear is finally euthanized by his own despair,
not redeemed by it.
The fundamental error that lies at the root of all of this is Bradley’s conviction that
salvation can be bought with suffering—a conviction that, though admissible in other contexts,
cannot be located within the text of the play. The related themes of atonement and redemption
cannot be discovered within the world of King Lear, and so these concepts remain inherently
foreign to the ultimate meaning of the work. Between Edmund’s atheistic faith in fortune or
Gloucester’s lamentation of the indifferent gods, there is no point in King Lear in which
Bradley’s vision of a transcendent moral authority emerges. Or at least, whenever it does, the
events of the play quickly refute the belief in such an otherworldly force. This idea is the
foundation for the concept of redemption, and without the former, the latter cannot exist.
For this reason, Stampfer points out that the cruelest aspect of the play’s ending is the
fact that Lear actually does seem to be redeemed for a moment—namely, as he joyfully enters
prison with Cordelia, seemingly invincible in his contempt for the world. But as soon as Cordelia
is killed, his salvation is revoked, and as he holds the broken corpse of his daughter in his arms,
only then does Lear realize that his final deceit is that of deliverance. Cordelia’s survival was the
necessary condition for Lear’s redemption, the “chance which does redeem all sorrows,” and
thus the pivot upon which the issue of salvation turns (5.3.268). This gamble fails, however, and
so it is made clear that Lear’s hopes of redemption are utterly crushed. Cordelia’s death has
nullified her forgiveness, and has therefore deprived Lear’s process of would-be atonement of
any redemptive significance. Consequently, Stampfer is correct when he notes that there is “no
mitigation in Lear’s death, hence no mitigation in the ending of the play” (152). The savage
absurdity of Cordelia’s execution, when combined with the sudden realization that her death has
no broader significance, is the final fracture that breaks Lear’s heart, and he dies torn between
the “extremes of illusion and truth” (151).
The true significance of the play, which Bradley has forbidden himself from
understanding, is the unmitigated terror that it arouses in the spectator. In Stampfer’s words, one
leaves a performance of King Lear haunted with “the fear that penance is impossible […] the
fear that we inhabit an imbecile universe” (160). Far from providing us with a means of
metaphysical escape, the final scene of the play reveals that there is no significance to suffering
beyond the reality of pain itself. Contrary to Bradley’s interpretation, Lear’s death proves that
suffering is not the currency in which one purchases salvation, but the only truth in an otherwise
meaningless existence. This is knowledge that exceeds endurance, and it is only through tragedy
that we can see that the necessity of self-deception is the vital principle of an empty world. Thus
Kent warns Edgar:
Vex not his ghost: O let him pass! he hates him
That would upon the rack of this tough world
Stretch him out longer. (5.3.315-7)
In no other work is the stark antinomy of truth and vitality brought to bear with such merciless
focus. The denouement of King Lear is thus the final refutation of all the rationalized, moralized
interpretations of human suffering, for it demonstrates that redemption itself is contingent upon
illusion.
Works Cited
Bradley, A. C. “From Shakespearean Tragedy” (1904). Excerpt in the Signet edition of King
Lear, pp. 190-207.
Blake, William. “Jerusalem.” The Portable Blake. Ed. Alfred Kazin. New York: Viking Books,
1946.
Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of King Lear. Ed. Russell Fraser. New York: Signet Classic
Shakespeare, 1998.
Stampfer, J. “The Catharsis of King Lear.” Shakespeare Survey 13 (1960). Reprinted in
Laurence Lerner (ed.), Shakespeare's Tragedies: An Anthology of Modern Criticism.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1963, pp. 147-160.
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