Public Professionalization and Education Policy: The

Holland, Holland, & French
Volume 2, Issue 1 Spring, 2012
Public Professionalization and Education Policy: The
Effects of National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards
Joseph H. Holland
University of Mississippi
Jeanne W. Holland,
Delta State University
And
P. Edward French
Mississippi State University
Abstract
Over the decades, education reform has included significant changes. Many educational
policy initiatives concentrate on increasing the efficiency and accountability within the
public education institution. From No Child Left Behind (NCLB) to Obama’s Race to the
Top, a strong emphasis has been placed on developing “highly qualified teachers”. With
the establishment of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS),
the research investigates the professionalism of public educators by examining teachers
who have completed the NBPTS certification. The authors surveyed school principals in
Mississippi to understand the effectiveness and performance of National Board Certified
Teachers (NBCTs), compared to non-National Board Certified Teachers. The findings
were widely disbursed. Although principals indicated that NBCTs were more positively
perceived to be mentors for beginning or struggling teachers, respected by other teachers
Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to: Joseph H. Holland, Ph.D. (Corresponding Author)
Visiting Assistant Professor, Department of Public Policy Leadership, University of Mississippi. Phone:
662.418.1936: Fax: 662.915.1954. Jeanne W. Holland, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of Teacher
Education Delta State University, Ewing 376, Highway 8 West38733, Cleveland MS 38733.
[email protected] Phone: 662.846.4382; P. Edward French, Associate Professor & Graduate
Coordinator, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, PO Box PC Mississippi State
University, MS 39762.Phone: 662-325-2711;[email protected]
©Delta State University, 2012
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Volume 2, Issue 1 Spring, 2012
as professionals, and trusted to make sound educational decisions, compared to nonNCBTs, the data suggest that 13 out of 16 survey items were inconsequential regarding
teachers who held a National Board Certification. The results indicate ambivalent
perspectives regarding NBCTs. These findings should encourage education policy
makers and NBPTS proponents to take a closer look at the current implementation and
execution of the NBPTS.
Public Professionalization and Education Policy: The Effects of National
Board for Professional Teaching Standards
Ongoing educational reform efforts have included significant changes and
initiatives aimed at creating a public educational system that adequately prepares all
students to function in a world that is increasingly complex and rapidly changing. A well
educated workforce is essential for obtaining a competitive edge in global markets, and
this quest has translated into an increased emphasis on efficiency and accountability in
the institution of public education. Endeavors such as President Obama’s Race to the
Top and the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 have propelled this nation’s vision of high
quality learning for all students to the forefront of concern for educators, parents, and
policy makers. While all recognize that student achievement is strongly influenced by
what teachers know and do in the classroom, this nation’s perception of the teaching
profession must be challenged if social and economic inequalities are to be overcome.
Professionalism requires movement beyond traditional teacher preparation and espousal
of a lifelong commitment to research, professional development, and improved student
learning.
Public Administration has wrestled with the notion of public professionalism for
more than a century, as this concept invokes frameworks that are difficult to standardize
within a generalized discipline. Pugh (1989) suggests that six “overlapping traits”
highlight the formulation of a profession: (a) a cast of mind, (b) a corpus of theory and
knowledge, (c) a social idea, (d) ethical standards, (e) formal organization to promote its
interests, and (f) a “hall of fame” to recognize outstanding leaders (p.1). Nalbandian
(1990) highlights 3 tenets of contemporary professionalism in local government. First,
the role of a bureaucrat is important because he or she supports census-building and
brokering among various stakeholders. Second, the responsibility of a bureaucrat is
important within the concept of professionalism. For example, a professional bureaucrat
has an obligation to the public that he or she serves. Finally, Nalbandian suggests that the
value of efficiency is a pertinent tenet within contemporary professionalism in local
governments. Although professionalism in public administration has been an obscure,
but ubiquitous, topic for many public administrators and scholars, Mosher (1968) in his
book Democracy and the Public Service, suggests that the emphasis and importance of
professionals in the public sector is continuing to increase.
This era of New Public Management has propelled school performance and
teacher competency in our educational system to the forefront of public scrutiny.
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Accountability frameworks in education have focused on stated standards and
performance measures, and there have been increased demands for financial
accountability and outcomes–based assessment of students, teachers, and principals.
Disparities in teacher qualifications across schools and the under-performance of students
due to inexperienced and uncertified teachers have highlighted the need for vast
improvement in the teacher workforce (Boyd, Goldhaber, Lankford, & James.,. 2007).
State and district efforts to improve teacher quality have focused on traditional
preparation, alternative route programs, state certification exams, professional
development, and national certification. Numerous studies have evaluated the
relationship between student achievement and teacher effectiveness in terms of classroom
experience, certification, content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and membership in
professional associations; and research has shown that student outcomes are significantly
related to the quality of the teacher workforce (Boyd et al., 2007; Buday & Kelly, 1996;
Burke, 2005; Castle, Fox, & Souder, 2006; Ensign, 1998; Harlin, 2005; Kane, Rockoff &
Staiger, 2007; Servage, 2009; Zientek, 2006).
The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) was
established in 1987 as a program for strengthening the teaching profession (National
Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 2007). The Board certifies teachers who
meet rigorous standards established for what accomplished teachers should know and be
able to do. While National Board certification does not replace state licensure
requirements, many states encourage teachers to pursue NBPTS certification and offer
incentives such as bonuses or salary differentials to individuals completing the yearlong
assessment process. The intent of this article is to investigate the professionalization of
public educators by examining teachers who have completed the NBPTS certification
process. In this study, the authors surveyed school principals to understand the
effectiveness and performance of National Board Certified Teachers (NBCTs), compared
to non-National Board Certified Teachers. As the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act
promotes the growth of accountability (Wong, 2008) and is linked to additional
educational policies that promote professionalism through “highly qualified teachers”, it
is important to understand the effectiveness and performance of NBPTs, who are trained
to provide high quality instruction.
PROFESSIONALIZATION AND EDUCATION POLICY
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards
In 1986, the Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy assembled a task
force to address the issue of improving education in the U.S. The task force published A
Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century( in year?), which provided
recommendations for a number of areas of education. One area of recommendation
focused on developing a national certification system for professional teachers. As a
result, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) was established
in 1987. This initiative developed standards for highly qualified teachers. These new
professional standards create a profession of well-educated teachers prepared to assume
new powers and responsibilities to redesign and lead schools for the future (NBPTS,
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n.d.a, p. 1). Today, the NBPTS is a voluntary national certification system, which
continues to model superior educational standards for highly qualified teachers. To
obtain the certification, candidates must submit portfolio entries and assessment center
exercises, which provide peer reviewers the evidence to evaluate the candidates
according to a rigorous and established scoring process. At least 12 classroom teachers
who hold a certification review the submittals and entries are scored independently
throughout the process. These entries are submitted in written formats as well as video
formats, which provide reviewers the ability to observe the candidate teaching styles.
The mission of NBPTS includes: (a) maintaining high and rigorous standards for
what accomplished teachers should know and be able to do; (b) providing a national
voluntary system certifying teachers who meet these standards; (c) advocating related
education reforms to integrate National Board Certification in American education and to
capitalize on the expertise of National Board Certified Teachers. These new professional
standards attempt to create a profession of well-educated teachers prepared to assume
new powers and responsibilities to redesign and lead schools for the future (NBPTS,
n.d.a, p. 1). It is important for scholars and practitioners to better understand the
effectiveness and performance of NBPTs because many states recognize the certification
as sufficient proof of state licensure, provide additional income incentives, and classify
these teachers as “highly qualified teachers”, which is a directive under NCLB (NCLB
Website). Currently, NBPTS indicates that five core propositions guide this initiative to
develop highly qualified teachers. Table 1 illustrates the five propositions and the subtext that supports each suggestion.
Table 1: NBPTS Five Core Propositions
Proposition 1: Teachers are Committed to Students and Their Learning
•
•
•
•
•
•
NBCTs are dedicated to making knowledge accessible to all students. They believe all students
can learn.
They treat students equitably. They recognize the individual differences that distinguish their
students from one another and they take account for these differences in their practice.
NBCTs understand how students develop and learn.
They respect the cultural and family differences students bring to their classroom.
They are concerned with their students’ self-concept, their motivation and the effects of
learning on peer relationships.
NBCTs are also concerned with the development of character and civic responsibility.
Proposition 2: Teachers Know the Subjects They Teach and How to Teach Those
Subjects to Students.
•
•
•
NBCTs have mastery over the subject(s) they teach. They have a deep understanding of the
history, structure and real-world applications of the subject.
They have skill and experience in teaching it, and they are very familiar with the skills gaps and
preconceptions students may bring to the subject.
They are able to use diverse instructional strategies to teach for understanding.
Proposition 3: Teachers are Responsible for Managing and Monitoring Student
Learning.
•
•
NBCTs deliver effective instruction. They move fluently through a range of instructional
techniques, keeping students motivated, engaged and focused.
They know how to engage students to ensure a disciplined learning environment, and how to
organize instruction to meet instructional goals.
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•
•
Volume 2, Issue 1 Spring, 2012
NBCTs know how to assess the progress of individual students as well as the class as a whole.
They use multiple methods for measuring student growth and understanding, and they can
clearly explain student performance to parents.
Proposition 4: Teachers Think Systematically about Their Practice and Learn from
Experience.
•
•
•
NBCTs model what it means to be an educated person – they read, they question, they create
and they are willing to try new things.
They are familiar with learning theories and instructional strategies and stay abreast of current
issues in American education.
They critically examine their practice on a regular basis to deepen knowledge, expand their
repertoire of skills, and incorporate new findings into their practice.
Proposition 5: Teachers are Members of Learning Communities. NBCTs collaborate
with others to improve student learning.
•
•
•
•
They are leaders and actively know how to seek and build partnerships with community groups
and businesses.
They work with other professionals on instructional policy, curriculum development and staff
development.
They can evaluate school progress and the allocation of resources in order to meet state and
local education objectives.
They know how to work collaboratively with parents to engage them productively in the work
of the school
A policy statement, which was released by the NBPTS organization (2010)
highlighted that , “the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and subsequent legislative
directives offer a narrow view of highly qualified teachers that tend to diminish many of
the factors that research and practice indicate are critical to effective instruction and
learning” (Policy Statement, p. 1). In a supplement document, NBPTS noted two
elements that encompass the dimension of professionalism in teaching. First, a body of
specialized knowledge is chief within professions. However, while other professions
maintained the knowledge within their spheres, teachers are obligated to share the expert
knowledge and skills with students as well as “. . . strive to empower students to continue
the quest for understanding, so the one day the pupil may surpass the instructor”, which
indicates that ”teaching is the most democratic of professions” (p. 6). Secondly, the
NBPTS specified that ethics is a major element of professionalism. For teachers, this is
amplified because public education is “compulsory and. . . the clients are children” (p. 6).
METHODOLOGY
This study was based on survey data collected in the summer of 2010. Surveys
were mailed to 870 principals in Mississippi. One-hundred and ninety-five responses
were received for a response rate of 22.4%. The questionnaire collected data regarding
demographics of the principal including education level, years as a principal, age, gender,
race, and if the principal was National Board Certified. In addition, the questionnaire
collected school profile data that included school population, percent of student who are
eligible for free or reduced meals, and whether the principals administer NBCTs. Finally,
the questionnaire collected perceptual data from the principals regarding observation of
the effectiveness and performance of NBCTs. Sixteen items were measured on a Likerttype scale. In addition, each question was linked to the five propositions highlighted in
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Table 2: Interview Question Linkages
Propositions
Teachers are Committed to Students and Their
Learning.
•
•
•
Teachers Know the Subjects They Teach and How to •
Teach Those Subjects to Students.
•
•
•
•
Teachers are Responsible for Managing and
Monitoring Student Learning.
•
•
Teachers Think Systematically about Their Practice
and Learn from Experience.
Teachers are Members of Learning Communities.
NBCTs collaborate with others to improve student
learning.
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Interview Questions
NBCTs develop and implement professional
development workshops for other teachers within
the school or district, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs mentor beginning or struggling teachers
within their school, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are respected by other teachers in the
school as professionals and experts within the
content area they are teaching, compared to nonNBCTs.
NBCTs conduct case study research within their
classroom, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs provide professional presentations at
local, regional, national, or international
conferences, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs advocate for stronger curriculum,
compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are advocates for their colleagues,
compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are advocates for their students, compared
to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are trusted to make sound educational
decisions about instruction which include
innovative practices such as hands-on instruction,
problem-based learning and the inclusion of
technology, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs work diligently to differentiate instruction
so that all students will learn, compared to nonNBCTs.
NBCTs use assessment results to modify and
inform their instruction, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs assist in determining a plan for school
improvement, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs raise issues and concerns that are
important to them, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are involved in making decisions about
educational issues within the school, district, or
community, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are actively involved in making decisions
about school budgetary allocations, compared to
non-NBCTs.
NBCTs actively take steps to solve problems on
their own, compared to non-NBCTs.
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Volume 2, Issue 1 Spring, 2012
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
Principal Group and School Profile
Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the demographic information provided
by the respondents. The majority of the principals were female (53 percent) and white
(69 percent). Two percent of the principals’ ages ranged from 20 to 29, 19 percent from
30-39, 34 percent from 40 to 49, 33 percent from 50-59, 20 percent were above the age of
60. The average years of principal service was 6.9 years, with a standard deviation of
6.51 years. The mode was 3 years and the median was 7 years of service. As expected,
the group was highly educated with 16 percent holding a doctorate. Fifty-eight percent
had a master’s and 24 percent have an educational specialist degree, which is pursued
after a master degree, but it is not doctorate. Finally, according to the data, an
overwhelming majority (94 percent) of the principals are non-NBCTs.
Regarding the profile of the schools where the principals worked, 40.1 percent of
the students were eligible for reduced or free lunches. Forty-nine percent of the students
were white, 46 percent of the students were black, four percent of the students were
Hispanic and one percent were classified as Asian or other.
Data Analysis
Table 3 provides an overview of the findings of this research. The questionnaire
was designed to examine the effectiveness and performance of NBCTs, compared to nonNBCTs, as observed by principals. These survey items emerged from the five NBPTS
core propositions and an extensive literature review of highly qualified teachers’
characteristics (Berry, Fuller, & Williams, 2008; Institute for Educational Leadership,
n.d.; & Rockwood, n.d.). Interestingly, the findings are widely disbursed. However, there
are responses that indicate principals do perceive NBCTs’ positively regarding certain
propositions, compared to non-NBCTs. For example, 56 percent of the principals agree
or strongly agree that NBCTs are more likely to mentor beginning or struggling
colleagues, compared to 27% of principals who state NBCTs are less likely. Another
finding suggests that NBCTs are respected by other teachers in the school as
professionals and experts within the content area they are teaching, compared to nonNBCTs. Fifty- seven percent of the principals agree or strongly agree with this
statement, compared to 19 percent who disagree or strongly disagree. Regarding being
trustworthy, 61 percent of principals indicate that NBCTs are trusted to make sound
educational decisions about instruction which include innovative practices such as handson instruction, problem-based learning and the inclusion of technology. These results
indicate some positive perceptions of NBCTs; however, the survey also raise some
concern regarding public school personnel’s perception on the effectiveness of National
Board Certified Teachers. NBCT certification was perceived by a majority of
respondents to be inconsequential for 13 of the 16 survey items. For example, only 26
percent of principals suggest that NBCTs are more likely to conduct case study research
within their classroom. This is important due to NBPTS initiative for NBCTs to conduct
research. Moreover, only 16 percent of principals agreed or strongly agreed that NBCTs
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21
are more likely to participate in the budgetary allocations activities; and less than of those
responding to the survey considered NBCTs to be stronger advocates for curriculum,
colleagues, and students as compared to non-NBCTs.
Table 3: Survey Findings
Survey Item
N:195
NBCTs develop and implement professional
development workshops for other teachers within
the school or district, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs mentor beginning or struggling teachers
within their school, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are respected by other teachers in the
school as professionals and experts within the
content area they are teaching, compared to nonNBCTs.
NBCTs conduct case study research within their
classroom, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs use assessment results to modify and
inform their instruction, compared to nonNBCTs.
NBCTs provide professional presentations at
local, regional, national, or international
conferences, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs advocate for stronger curriculum,
compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are advocates for their colleagues,
compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are advocates for their students,
compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are trusted to make sound educational
decisions about instruction which include
innovative practices such as hands-on instruction,
problem-based learning and the inclusion of
technology, compared to non-NBCTs .
NBCTs work diligently to differentiate
instruction so that all students will learn,
compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs assist in determining a plan for school
improvement, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs raise issues and concerns that are
important to them, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are involved in making decisions about
educational issues within the school, district, or
community, compared to non-NBCTs.
NBCTs are actively involved in making decisions
about school budgetary allocations, compared to
non-NBCTs.
NBCTs actively take steps to solve problems on
their own, compared to non-NBCTs.
Strongly
Disagree
(%)
Disagree
(%)
Neutral
(%)
Agree
(%)
Strongly
Agree
(%)
10
30
17
35
8
5
22
17
43
13
4
15
24
39
18
8
35
31
22
4
4
22
24
38
12
5
30
30
26
9
7
26
26
30
11
6
26
30
26
12
7
26
26
29
12
6
15
18
44
17
5
20
26
34
15
6
27
24
32
11
4
26
26
33
11
5
26
26
32
11
10
39
35
10
6
5
22
28
27
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CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The notion of professionalism in public administration stimulates immense
discussion regarding enhancing the public workforce. Reform-driven changes in
education have focused on a universal goal of high-quality learning for all students and
have placed teacher quality in the spotlight. Public education administrators and policy
makers continue to focus on policy that enhances and standardizes teachers in the
bureaucracy. Higher standards for student achievement have highlighted the importance
of the daily interactions between students and teachers in the classroom; and programs
aimed at strengthening the teaching profession are crucial if public perceptions of
teaching are to be changed and confidence in the education system is to be restored. The
NBPTS is a national program aimed at developing highly qualified teachers who are
dedicated to advanced standards defining instructional, classroom, and personal skills.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the implications of the presence of National
Board Certified Teachers in the Mississippi state education system.
The results of the research indicate an ambivalent perspective regarding NBCTs
in Mississippi. Although there are some questionnaire items that spurred positive results,
the responses were widely disbursed. The public school principals in this study did not
overwhelmingly perceive NBCTs as being highly effective for most survey items as
compared to non-NBCTs. Education policy makers and NBPTS proponents should take
a closer look at the current implementation and execution of NBPTS. As NBPTS
initiatives promote the professionalism of teachers through certification, the results of this
study indicate that a substantive framework for the improvement of teaching involving
teachers, school administrators, policy makers, and teacher education programs is needed
to develop a true system of quality assurance in each phase of teacher preparation and
development.
References
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Boyd, D., Goldhaber, D., Lankford, H., &James Wyckoff, J. (Spring, 2007). “The effect
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Buday, M. & Kelly, J. A. (November, 1996). “National Board certification and the
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